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ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 

A  COURSE  IN  PLAIN  PROSE 
COMPOSITION 


BY 


ALPHONSO   G.    NEWCOMER 

Associate  Professor  of  English 
in  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 


NEW   YORK 

HENRY   HOLT   AND   COMPANY 
1899 


Copyright,  1898, 

BY 

HENRY  HOLT  &  CO. 


ROBERT   DRITMMON'D     PRINTER.  NEW   YORK. 


e^ 


PREFACE. 

This  book  differs  from  most  treatises  upon  rhetoric  and 
composition  in  two  particulars — arrangement,  and  propor- 
tion. The  common  order  is  reversed,  and  the  study  of 
words,  instead  of  being  put  first,  is  put  last,  while  at  the 
outset  attention  is  centred  upon  methods  of  gathering  and 
ordering  material.  The  reason  for  this  should  be  plain. 
Composition  must  begin  with  ideas.  Diction  is  the  very 
last  consideration  in  the  process  of  constructing  an  essay — 
it  may  even  be  reserved  until  revision.  If  words  be  thrust 
first  upon  the  attention,  the  student  naturally  supposes 
that  words,  instead  of  the  ideas  behind  them,  are  his  raw 
material.  Comj^osition  becomes  to  him  wholly  an  artificial 
thing.  Freshness,  independence,  naturalness,  ease,  are  put 
far  from  him,  perhaps  never  to  be  attained.  It  is  a  matter 
of  history  that,  excepting  here  and  there  a  Pater  and  a 
Stevenson,  our  masters  of  letters  have  not  come  into  their 
kingdom  through  wrestling  with  words.  Such  I  offer  as 
the  main  defense  of  this  book,  and  reason  for  its  being. 

The  proportion  of  parts  has  been  determined  both  by  the 
foregoing  consideration  and  by  experience.  The  bulk  of 
matter  in  our  rhetorics  is  traditionary  and,  except  for 
higher,  critical  purposes,  nseless.  Good  writing  depends 
chiefly  on  half  a  dozen  things — on  managing  properly  the 
few  words  that  represent  the  germ  ideas,  on  keeping  sen- 
tences from  being  submerged  by  the  weight  of  their  own 
clauses,  on  attending  to  the  articulation  (the  relation-words 
of  all  kinds,  the  pronouns),  on  logical  arrangement  and 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

proportionate  emphasis  of  ideas.  Thes3  few  things  are 
emphasized  here.  Discussion  of  barbarisms,  provincialisms, 
tropes,  etc.,  is  for  the  most  part  avoided.  The  ground  is 
nearly  always  unsafe.  Judgment  is  difficult,  legislation 
well-nigh  impossible.  Besides,  it  is  in  these  matters  that 
individuality  of  style  chiefly  lies,  and  that  is  a  thing  that 
teacher  and  text-book  alike  must  touch  sacredly.  Hence 
the  slight  treatment  accorded  to  diction,  to  words  and 
phrases  as  such:  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the 
whole  composition  are  more  easily  reduced  to  law.  Hence, 
too,  the  subordination  of  narration  and  description,  on 
which  point  see  further  Section  Five.  In  short,  I  have 
kept  in  view  constructive  or  applied  rhetoric,  rather  than 
critical,  the  art  rather  than  the  science,  enlarging  upon 
whatever  bears  directly  on  practice,  and  reducing  to  a 
minimum  all  else.  Discussion  of  obsolete  words,  for  exam- 
ple, is,  in  a  rhetoric,  only  dead  matter.  No  student  ever 
writes  obsolete  words.  By  leaving  the  study  of  them  to 
those  courses  in  English  classics  which  all  our  schools  now 
provide,  and  in  which  the  study  becomes  a  vital  thing, 
rlietoric  is  relieved  of  a  useless  burden.  Perliaps  an  excep- 
tion should  be  made  in  the  case  of  figures  of  speech,  which 
would  be  without  systematic  treatment  if  our  rhetorics  did 
not  give  it.  Besides,  some  figures  are  mechanical  and  may 
be  artificially  employed. 

For  the  rest,  I  am  disposed  to  make  little  claim  to 
originality.  IJather,  even  where  there  was  a  temptation  to 
independence  of  treatment  (as  in  the  chapter  on  shall  and 
will),  liave  I  preferred  to  fall  back  upon  long-tried  methods 
and  rules.  So,  in  larger  matters,  there  is  general  adher- 
ence to  the  ordinary  method  of  teaching  through  examples 
and  exercises.  I  have  no  puritanic  fear  of  examj^les  of 
faulty  English.  To  give  correct  examples  is  well,  but 
experience  shows  that  something  more  is  needed.     Many 


PREFACE.  V 

students  do  not  read  enough  good  literature  to  form  a  good 
style  by  absorption.  Many  have  formed  bad  habits  that  no 
amount  of  reading  or  imitation  of  good  models  will  correct. 
They  must  be  made  to  see  their  errors.  Is  it  argued  that 
a  wrong  construction  should  never  meet  the  eye  ?  But  if 
the  construction  is  distinctly  labeled  "  wrong,"  that  fact 
abides  as  a  part  of  tbe  impression,  and  this  is  something  to 
be  desired.  Sooner  or  later,  in  newsj^apers  or  elsewhere, 
the  eye  will  meet  the  construction  not  so  labeled,  and  then 
only  the  forewarned  will  receive  no  harm. 

Special  pains  have  been  taken  to  assist  the  teacher  and  to 
lighten  his  labor.  Exercises  in  considerable  variety  are 
appended,  together  with  numerous  models.  Difficulties  of 
punctuation,  hyphenation,  spelling,  thesis- writing,  etc.,  are 
dealt  with, — all  precisely  to  the  degree  dictated  by  experi- 
ence with  students  of  many  grades  of  proficiency  or  defi- 
ciency. In  particular,  the  contents  of  the  book  have  been 
tabulated  on  two  pages  (376,  377)  in  such  a  manner  that, 
with  the  book  open  before  him,  the  corrector  of  themes  can 
see  at  a  glance  the  reference  he  desires  to  write  in  the  margin 
of  a  theme.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seemed  well  to  avoid 
such  an  excess  of  exercises  and  examples  as  would  encour- 
age listless,  routine  teaching.  Live  examples,  drawn  from 
the  pupils'  own  work,  and  exercises  founded  upon  it,  are 
always  best.  The  less  their  eyes  are  kept  upon  this  book, 
and  the  more  upon  their  own  work,  the  better.  It  should 
be  the  hope  of  every  teacher  of  rhetoric  that  the  text-book 
his  pupils  use  may  rapidly  become  a  mere  reference-book 
in  their  hands. 

What  may  be  deemed  an  inordinate  use  of  Macaulay  in 
these  pages,  cannot  fail  to  be  noticed.  I  am  not  ignorant 
of  what  Mr.  John  Morley  and  other  critics  have  said  of  the 
dangers  that  attend  the  copying  of  Macaulay's  style.  I 
know  that  Macaulay  himself  felt  that  his  manner,  while 


vi  DEFACE. 

good,  was  "  very  near  to  a  very  bad  manner  indeed,"  I 
own,  moreover,  that  I  have  no  personal  fondness  for  the 
style.  Bat  it  possesses,  in  an  eminent  degree,  precisely  the 
qualities  that  composition-writers  need  —  clearness  and 
vivacity.  Its  mechanical  construction  too  can  be  easily 
understood,  can  be  analyzed  and  copied;  and  perhaps  no 
man  ever  yet  formed  his  style  without  copying,  consciously 
or  unconsciously.  Such  methods  I  would  put  into  the 
background  as  far  as  possible:  I  have  already  entered  a 
protest  against  mere  "wrestling  with  words."  And  cer- 
tainly the  writer  who  has  it  in  him  to  evolve  a  great  and 
original  style,  has  little  to  learn  from  Macaulay.  But  it 
were  a  pity  that,  lest  by  some  remote  chance  one  genius 
be  led  into  the  wrong  path,  the  ninety  and  nine  for  whom 
no  such  danger  exists  be  left  leaderless  on  no  path  at  all. 
Of  course  the  ninety  and  nine  will  not  attain  to  the  quali- 
ties that  really  made  Macaulay  great,  but  that  is  nothing 
to  the  point.  If  a  clear,  readable  style  is  achieved,  their 
end  is  gained,  and,  if  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of 
Freeman  and  Fronde,  the  study  of  Macaulay  will  help  to 
such  an  end. 

Again,  I  foresee  an  objection  to  this  book  on  the  score  of 
its  length ;  and  I  feel  the  objection  in  all  its  force.  But 
there  are  two  answers.  Each  specialist,  in  a  day  of  special- 
izing, may  demand  short  cuts  to  a  knowledge  of  the  rapidly 
multiplying  sciences  outside  of  his  specialty.  But  compo- 
sition, as  herein  contemplated,  is  not  a  specialty.  It  holds 
a  position  of  general  importance  by  the  side  of  grammar 
and  arithmetic  and  geography.  A  mastery  of  it  is  the 
almost  indispensable  concomitant  of  any  scholarly  achieve- 
ment or  professional  success.  And  there  is  no  short  cut  to 
the  master^/  of  anything.  In  the  second  place,  not  all  of 
this  book  is  intended  to  be  studied.  Some  of  the  matter 
is  chiefly  for  reference,  and  is  intended  to  afford  a  rational 


PREFACE.  VU 

discussion  of  such  questions  as  writers  are  constantly  asking 
themselves  or  their  instructors.  Thus  some  degree  of  com- 
pleteness may  be  claimed.  The  whole  art  of  composition 
within  a  hundred  pages  may  look  alluring, — I  can  only 
assert  that  it  is  impracticable. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  here  that  I  have  taken  the 
art  of  rhetoric  seriously.  Juggling  with  words  for  amuse- 
ment, 60  temptingly  easy,  has  never  seemed  to  me  profit- 
able. I  have  not  tried  to  be  entertaining.  Nevertheless, 
I  trust  that  some  parts  of  what  I  have  written  will  not 
prove  wholly  without  stimulus  to  endeavor  of  the  fruitful 
kind. 

A.  G.  Is^o 

Staisford  Uxitersity,  Califoexia, 
October,  1898. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 


PAGE 

I.  Introductory. 

1.  Composition  Defined. ...  1 

II.  The  Subject. 

2.  Range  of  Subjects 3 

3.  Nature  of  the  Subject. . .  6 

4.  Limitation  of  the  Subject  9 

5.  Kinds  of  Subjects 10 

III.  The  Material. 

6.  Finding  Material 13 


PAGK 

7.  Accrediting  Material 20 

8.  Use  of  Material 22 

9.  Arrangement  of  Material  27 

10.  The  Outline 30 

IV.   The  Composition. 

11.  The  Title 38 

12.  The  Introduction 41 

13.  The  Body 52 

14.  The  Conclusion 61 


PART   n.— THE   PARAGRAPH. 


I.  Nature  op  the  Paragraph. 

15.  Technical  Definition. ...  66 

16.  Logical  Definition 66 

17.  Kinds  of  Paragraphs. ...  69 

18.  Length  of  Paragraphs  . .  69 

19.  Principles  of  Division. . .  72 

II.  Construction. 

20.  The  Topic 77 


21.  Modification  of  the  Topic  77 

22.  Elucidation  of  the  Topic  79 

23.  Argument 83 

24.  Enforcement 86 

III.  Laws. 

25.  Unity 99 

26.  Coherence 103 

27.  Proportion  and  Emphasis  113 

ix 


CONTENTS. 


PART   III.— THE   SENTENCE   AND  ITS   CLAUSES. 


PACK 

I.  Nature  op   the   Sentence. 

28.  Definition 114 

29.  Kinds  of  Sentences 117 

30.  Unity 118 

II.  Syntax. 

31.  Concord 122 

32.  Regimen 127 

33.  Tense  Relations 129 

34.  Participles  and  Particip- 

ial Clauses 1 36 

35.  Infinitives 140 

36.  Mixed  Constructions 143 

37.  Coordination  and  Subor- 

dination   147 


PAGE 

III.  Clearness. 

38.  Collocation 156 

39.  Conjunction 162 

40.  Restriction 163 

41.  Negation 167 

42.  Ellipsis 168 

43.  Reference 170 

IV.  Effectiteness. 

44.  Conciseness 174 

45.  Sentence-length 184 

46.  Proportion 189 

47.  Variety 192 

48.  Emphasis 192 

49.  Balance 198 

50.  Euphony 203 


PART   IV.— WORDS   AND   PHRASES. 


I.  Relation  to  Thought. 

51.  Unequivocalness 209 

52.  Precision 210 

53.  Familiarity 214 

II.  Relation  to  Structure. 

54.  Logical  Conformity 215 

55.  Functionality 218 


56.  Idiomatic  Usage 219 

57.  Repetition 223 

III.  Relation  to  Style. 

58.  Tone 227 

59.  Vigor 233 

60.  Beauty 243 


PART   v.— MECHANICAL   PROCESSES. 


61.  Chirography 261 

62.  Tlie  Manuscript 262 

63.  Punctuation 263 

64.  Al)breviatioiis 275 

65.  Capitals 276 


66.  Compounds 278 

67.  Spelling 283 

68.  Letter  Writing 287 

69.  Tlieses 288 


CONTENTS.  XI 


APPENDIX   A. 

PAGE 

Disputed  and  Faulty  Diction 297 

APPENDIX   B. 

Examples  of  Defective  Composition 307 

I.  AForced  Delay 307 

II.  A  Natural  Bridge 308 

III,  A  Dance  on  tlie  Border 310 

IV.  What  Dormitory  Life  means  to  the  Average  Girl. . .   312 
V-.  Early  Education 314 

VI.  Exploring  a  Cave 317 

VII.  My  Vacation '. 318 

VIII.  My  First  Near  View  of  an  Angleworm 319 

IX.  Placer  County 319 

X.  Lifein  the  "Lab." 322 

XL  Isinglass 324 

XII.   A  Wealth  of  Beauty 325 

XIIL  The  Chinaman  as  Found  in  the  United  States 326 

XIV.  Placer  Mining  in  British  Columbia 329 

APPENDIX   C. 

Models  of  Good  Composition 334 

XV.  A  Bee  Hunt. — Washington  Irving 334 

XVI.  Which  To-day  Is.— Sarah  Comstock 337 

XVII.  The  Westinghouse  Air-brake 339 

XVIII.  The  Precipices  of  Mount  Cervin. — John  Ruskin. . . .   339 

XIX.  Father  Apollinaris. — R.  L.  Stevenson 345 

XX.  Party    in     American     Politics.  —  George     William 

Curtis 348 

XXI.  The  Practical  Value  of   Biological  Science. — Thos. 

H.  Huxley 352 

XXII.  Lord   Clive   and    His    First    Visit   to   India. — Lord 

Macaulay 354 

Abbreviations  for  Use  in  Correcting  Themes 376 

Condensed  Table  op  Contents 376 

Index 379 


ELEMENTS   OF    RHETORIC. 

THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 

I.     INTEODUCTOKY. 

Practical  or  Applied  Rhetoric  and  the  Art  of  Com- 
position are  convertible  terms.  While  this  treatise  is  called 
a  rhetoric,  in  conformity  with  established  practice,  the  word 
composition  will  be  more  frequently  used,  as  serving  to  con- 
vey more  directly  its  chief  aim,  which  is  constructive  rather 
than  critical  or  scientific. 

1.  Composition  is  the  act  of  putting  together,  of  arrang- 
ing. Specifically,  it  is  the  act  of  putting  together  ideas. 
A  composition  is  a  number  of  ideas  on  one  subject,  so 
grouped  and  connected  as  to  give  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  subject.  The  primary  aim  is  to  get  something  said;  to 
get  it  said  well  is  secondary.  We  must  begin,  therefore, 
with  invention,  with  the  determination  of  a  subject  and  the 
selection  and  organization  of  material. 

The  Art  of  Composition  should  not  be  conceived  of  as  something 
existing  solely  for  itself,  to  be  acquired  or  not  as  one  pleases.  It 
is  not  for  any  ornamental  character  it  may  possess  that  it  is  in- 
cluded in  the  curricula  of  schools  and  colleges.  Indeed,  English 
Composition,  as  now  understood,  has  risen  into  prominence  just 
in  proportion  as  our  schools  have  grown  more  practical  in  their 
aims.  It  is  an  art,  but  it  is  an  eminently  practical  one — the  organ- 
ization and  presentation  of  our  ideas  as  a  means  to  the  fulfilment 
of  our  common  needs  and  desires.    To  speak  to  friends  or  strangers 


2  TUE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

at  a  distance,  to  address  absent  and  widely  scattered  audiences  at 
the  same  moment  of  time,  to  transmit  our  knowledge  and  our 
opinions  to  those  who  shall  come  after  us — these  are  real  every- 
day needs  of  modern  life. 

And  since  these  needs  are  most  easily  met  through  the  medium 
of  written  words,  in  the  mastery  of  this  medium  we  find  our  second 
task.  Yet  even  on  this  mechanical  side  composition  is  not  a 
mystery.  It  is  not  the  cult  of  a  literary  sect.  It  does  not  mean 
flowery  rhetoric.  It  means  good,  phiin  English,  and  its  mastery 
involves  only  the  ability  to  write  with  clearness  and  effect.  Never- 
theless, the  attendant  difficulties  must  not  be  underrated.  Few 
men  can  communicate  their  simplest  thoughts  or  desires  with  no 
waste  of  words  and  with  immediate  intelligibility.  "  I  know  but 
I  cannot  tell,"  is  a  familiar  answer  in  tlie  schoolroom,  and  we  are 
inclined  to  smile  at  the  paltriness  of  the  excuse.  But  it  is  too 
often  sadly  true.  Ask  a  cook  how  she  makes  her  excellent  salad  ; 
ask  a  friend  to  instruct  you  in  the  rules  of  a  certain  game.  The 
chances  are  that  both  know  far  better  than  they  can  tell. 
"Printed  directions,"  whether  for  hanging  a  door,  or  dyeing  a 
scarf,  or  carving  a  turkey,  are  likely  to  be  puzzling  in  the  extreme. 
Business  men  and  school  boards  could  tell  of  many  an  applicant  for 
a  position  who  met  with  no  favor  because  he  could  not  state  plainly 
what  he  wanted  and  wliat  his  qualifications  were.  The  phrase- 
ology of  state  papers,  statutes,  and  legal  documents  generally, 
betrays  how  difficult  a  matter  it  is  to  make  language  say  one  thing 
clearly  and  one  thing  only.  Words  are  tricksy  Ariels — they  do  su 
much  more  than  we  dream  ;  or  they  grow  stubborn  ou  our  hands, 
and  will  do  nothing  at  all.  Study  will  make  us  alive  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  misunderstanding  which  lie  in  the  most  innocent-look- 
ing phrase  ;  practice  will  open  up  to  us  the  resources  for  avoiding 
such  misunderstanding  and  for  securing  the  richest  results  with 
the  least  labor  and  waste.* 

♦  By  a  curious  coincidence,  this  sentence  affords  an  illustration  of  its  own 
truth.  It  was  originally  written  thus  :  "  Stuuy  will  make  us  alive  to  the 
possihilities  of  nilsunderstandiu;;  that  lie  in  the  most  innocent-looking  phrase." 
When  the  sentence  was  tninscribed  on  the  typewriter,  it  chanced  that  tlie 
words  "  misunderstanding  that  lie  "  fell  at  the  end  of  a  line,  so  that  tlie  words 
were  naturally  read  as  a  single  phrase— "  lie  "  as  a  noun,  "  that  "  as  a  demon- 
strative, and  •■  misundorslandiug"  as  a  verb  governing  "lie."  Tlie  ambiguity 
was  remedied  by  changing  "  that "  to  "  which." 


RANGE  OF  SUBJECTS.  3 

But  composition  should  bear  another  relation  than  that  to  the 
end  served — a  relation  to  the  composer.  Force  of  language  can 
come  only  from  force  of  character.  Clean  writing  can  come  only 
out  of  clean  thinking  and,  in  a  measure,  clean  living.  Certain  it 
is  that  no  high  degree  of  success  can  attend  any  style  that  is  not 
grounded  in  character.  It  will  not  pay  to  try  to  get  far  from  your- 
self, to  be  unnatural  or  untrue  to  yourself.  The  vitality  of  the 
relationship  between  the  arts  we  practise  and  the  life  we  live  should 
never  be  lost  sight  of.  Mark  in  the  "  Travels  and  Adventures  " 
of  Captain  John  Smith  how  the  decisive  word  goes  with  the  de- 
cisive deed.  Or  read  in  the  famous  letter  of  Dr.  Johnson  to  Lord 
Chesterfield  a  perfect  example  of  the  truth  of  Buffon's  saying, 
"  Style  is  the  man  himself."  "When  you  write,  write  yourself, 
with  an  eye  single  to  the  thing  yourself  desires  to  say.  You  can 
never  do  better  than  that. 

If  such  a  conception  of  the  art  of  composition  can  be  fixed,  stu- 
dents will  no  longer  present  themselves  at  college  for  examination 
in  this  branch  with  the  idea  that  they  must  "  compose  "  in  a  style 
suited  to  the  occasion,  or  that  they  will  be  judged  by  their  ability 
to  elaborate  figures  of  speech. 


II.     THE   SUBJECT. 

2.  Range  of  Subjects. — From  the  foregoing  it  follows 
naturally  that  one  must  look  for  subjects  within  one's  self, 
that  is  to  say,  within  the  range  of  one's  own  experience,  or 
interest,  or  knowledge,  or  power.  Only  upon  such  subjects 
can  one  say  anything  worth  saying,  and  to  have  something 
worth  saying  is  the  first  essential.  It  is  of  no  use  to  culti- 
vate a  worthy  manner  unless  one  have  worthy  matter.  That 
worthy  matter  is  to  be  sought  at  home.  What  do  you  care 
about  ?  What  do  you  know  about  ?  What  do  you  wish  to 
know  about — to  extend,  fix,  and  systematize  your  knowl- 
edge of  ?  This  is  your  material,  and  you  should  have  no 
difficulty  in  finding  it.  One  who  is  without  themes  has  no 
business  with  the  art  of  composition. 


4  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

Theoretically,  seeing  that  we  have  insisted  upon  treating  com- 
position broadly  and  upon  emphasizing  its  relation  to  all  depart- 
ments of  life,  the  range  of  subjects  is  world-wide.  Actually,  for 
the  individual,  it  is  limited  by  the  individual  limitations  spoken 
of  in  the  last  paragraph.  And,  in  the  world  of  affairs,  the  choice 
must  further  be  regulated  by  considerations  of  time  and  place. 
But  if  we  set  out  with  the  "relation"  idea,  the  " means-to-an- 
end  "  idea,  of  composition  strong  in  our  minds,  these  things 
will  follow  of  course.  The  purpose  of  the  essay  will  always 
stand  in  our  minds  before  the  essay  itself,  keeping  us  in  the 
right  path. 

In  practice  work,  the  closer  we  keep  to  real  conditions,  the 
better.  One  can  nearly  always  write  in  response  to  some  actual 
demand,  without  or  within.  Some  public  question  will  bear 
comment,  some  matter  of  local  interest  requires  discussion,  some 
personal  experience  is  worth  recording,  some  fantasy  of  the  brain 
seems  fair  enough  to  preserve.  Only  let  the  personal  limitations 
be  always  kept  in  view. 

A  list  of  subjects  of  some  variety  is  here  appended,  but  it  is 
given  more  to  show  the  kinds  of  themes  that  have  lent  them- 
selves to  successful  treatment  than  to  furnish  actual  ready-made 
subjects  for  the  use  of  others. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  THEMES. 

NARRATIVE.  A  Cosy  Corner. 

My  First  Day's  Fishing.  On  the  Water-front. 

A  Straw-ride.  ^"^^  ^^^'^  i^  Caught  by  a  Moving 

An  Expedition  on  a  Hand-car,  Iram. 

Room  Hunting.  Horace  Mann. 

A  Yachting  Incident.  NARRATIVE-DESCRIPTIVE. 

Autobiography  of  a  Monomaniac.  ^  Rouse-party. 

The  History  of  Communism.  ^^^^  ^^^  g^   Lawrence. 

DESCRIPTIVE.  A  ^^^y  '"  "  Tlie  Mission." 

The  Bowery.  KXPOsiTORy. 

Boston  Common.  The  Law  of  the  Road. 

The  Street  System  of  Salt  Lake  The  Care  of  a  Rifle. 

Citv.  Football  as  a  College  Sport. 

My  Native  Town.  Freighting  in  the  Early  History 

A  MiKlel  Farm.  of  the  West. 


SUBJECTS  FOR   THEMES. 


The  Raisin  Industry. 

Trout-fishing. 

The  Art  of  Dancing. 

Cooperative  Housekeeping. 

Cost  of  an  Education. 

Ancient     and     Modern      Greek 

Games. 
The  Income  Tax. 
Socialism  :  What  It  Means. 

ABGUMENTATIVE. 

A  Plea  for  the  Honor  System  in 

College  Examinations. 
Length  of  the  Presidential  Term. 
Desirability  of  Spelling  Reform. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Faunal  Extinction. 

A  Sleigh-ride. 

The  Development  of  the  Cabinet 

System  in  England. 
Advantages    and    Disadvantages 

of     Encouraging     Thrift      in 

Children. 
The  Nature  Element  in  Lowell's 

Poems. 
The    Cause    and    Cure    of   Hard 

Times. 
Speed  Indicators  and  their  Use  in 

Steam-engine  Testing. 
Development     of     the    Trotting 

Horse  in  the  United  States. 
The  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 
The  Park  System  of  Chicago. 
A  Bear-hunt. 
How  to  Sail  a  Boat. 
Dishonorable  Campaign  Methods. 
Early  History  of  Texas. 
Simplicity  in  Housekeeping. 
The  Duties  of  a  City  Engineer. 
Law  as  a  Profession. 


The  Duty  of  a  Physician  between 
Considerations  of  PublicHealth 
and  Private  Gain. 

Qualifications  of  a  Newspaper 
Man. 

Communistic  Communities. 

National  Sports. 

Daily  Routine  of  a  Bank. 

Some  Local  Aspects  of  the  Labor 
Question. 

Belief  in  the  Supernatural. 

Coccidae. 

Chinese  Civilization. 

Beethoven  and  Mendelssohn. 

Quartz-mining  in  the  United 
States. 

Pilots  and  Piloting. 

How  to  See  Scenery. 

American  Emblems. 

The  Passing  of  the  Stage-coach. 

Taxidermy. 

How  to  Conduct  a  Local  News- 
paper. 

Exemption  of  Judicial  Officers 
from  Liability  for  their  Acts. 

The  Oil  Industry. 

Raising  Onion-seed. 

Borax. 

Early  Religious  Training  of  Goe- 
the and  of  John  Stuart  Mill. 

Pianos. 

Longfellow's  Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn. 

Pickling  Olives. 

Dish- washing  in  a  Cooperative 
Club. 

Our  National  Forest  Reserva- 
tions. 

The  True  Function  of  the  Nor- 
mal School. 

Effect  of  Inventions  upon  the 
Laboring  Class. 


6  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

3.  Nature  of  the  Subject. — Perhaps  one  warning  is 
needed  here.  Tlie  immature  and  inexperienced  are  not 
competent  to  write  upon  abstract  or  moral  themes — upon 
"Self-reliance,"  upon  "The  Illusions  of  Hope,"  upon 
''True  Merit  Wins.*'  Such  subjects  are  affected  by  those 
who  have  the  false  idea  of  composition  which  we  are  trying 
to  remove.  They  lead  invariably  to  vague  thinking,  and 
to  the  cultivation  of  manner  before  matter — two  things 
fatal  to  any  genuine  success  in  this  art. 

Eead  one  such  essay : 

Luck. 

Is  there  such  a  thing  as  kick  or  chance  is  a  question  which 
every  one  has  at  some  time  pondered  upon.  It  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  believe  that  luck  does  not  exist  when  we  see  men  about 
lis  favored  with  fortune  upon  fortune,  merited,  seemingly,  by  no 
exertion  whatever.  It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  luck  arising 
from  trivial  every-day  occurrences,  such  as  finding  horseshoes, 
etc.,  is  believed  in  only  by  the  weak,  ignorant,  and  superstitious. 
But  often  that  happens  which  we  can  account  for  in  no  way  but 
by  its  being  genuine  good  luck.  Emerson  says  that  if  we  look 
back  we  shall  find  that  luck  has  arisen  from  some  previous  action, 
perhaps  unconsciously  performed :  everything  is  compensated 
for.  It  is  certainly  much  more  pleasing  to  think  that  we  can,  to 
a  certain  degree,  restrain  ill  fortune  and  insure  that  which  is 
good,  than  to  believe  ourselves  ruled  entirely  by  the  caprice  of 
fitful  luck.  Let  us  not  therefore  give  ourselves  up  to  waiting  for 
this  uncertain  visitor,  but  rather  strive  after  the  good  fortune 
which  faithful  labor  is  sure  to  bring. 

It  is  simple  enough,  and  sensible  enough  on  the  whole. 
But  the  reader  is  not  interested,  and  ho  is  not  put  in  pos- 
session of  any  valuable  facts  or  any  helpful  ideas.  The 
writer  should  have  left  the  subject  to  such  men  as  Emer- 
son. 

Take  a  paragraph  from  another  essay  of  this  kind: 


NATURE  OF  THE  SUBJECT.  7 

Time. 

"  Do  not  tell  me  of  to-morrow  ; 
There  is  much  to  do  to-day 
That  can  never  be  accomplished 
If  we  throw  the  hours  away  !  " 
Some  take  no  thought  of  the  value  of  money  until  it  is  gone, 
and  many  do  the  same  with  their  time.     The  hours  are  allowed 
f.o  pass  by  unemployed  ;  and  then  when  life  is  fast  waning  they 
bethink  themselves  of  making  a  wiser  use  of  it.     But  the  habit  of 
listlessness  and  idleness  may  already  have  become  confirmed  and 
they  are  unable  to  break  the  bonds  with  which  they  have  permit- 
ted themselves  to  become  bound.     Lost  wealth  may  be  replaced 
by  industry,  lost  knowledge  by  study,  lost  health  by  temperance 
and  medicine  ;  but  lost  time  is  gone  forever. 

This  is  worse  than  uninteresting.  It  is  characteristically 
prefaced  by  a  cheap  Jingle.  Then  tlie  writer  becomingly 
shies  a  little,  not  introducing  the  subject  suddenly,  but 
leading  up  to  it  by  a  forced  and  lifeless  comparison.  There 
follows  a  sweeping  statement,  presumably  applicable  to 
each  one  of  the  imaginary  "  many  "  to  whom  we  have  been 
introduced.  And  then — with  so  little  vividness  has  the 
picture  of  "  life  fast  waning"  been  conceived — we  are  told 
in  weak,  uncertain  terms  that  the  habit  of  idleness  may 
already  have  become  confirmed.  And  the  paragraph  con- 
cludes with  a  rhetorical  climax,  artificial  to  the  last  word 
of  it.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  writer  was  not 
conceiving  vividly  nor  feeling  deeply  when  he  wrote.  He 
had  no  purpose  beyond  that  of  making  a  composition. 
And  he  conceived  of  a  composition  as  something  very 
special  in  its  nature,  having  a  subject  drawn  from  a 
particular  field  of  speculation,  following  an  approved 
method  of  development,  and  consecrated  by  an  appropriate 
style.  Why  did  he  use  the  words  ivaniiig,  hetliinh,  bonds  f 
Partly  because  he  could  say  nothing  new  on  his  subject, 
and  in  saying  what  had  often  been  said  before  he  naturally 


8  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

used  the  words  tliat  had  been  used  before  ;  partly  because 
the  poetic  tinge  of  these  words  had  impressed  his  imagina- 
tion ;  partly  because  he  thought  that,  unless  he  used  a 
diction  sanctified  by  generations  of  composition-writers, 
his  work  would  not  be  a  composition  at  all.  Let  us  not 
be  too  severe.  The  writer  Avas  indulging  his  love  of  the 
beautiful,  and  in  this  all  writers  may,  within  reasonable 
bounds,  be  encouraged.  But  we  do  insist  that  a  writer 
shall  first  say  something  definite,  something  worth  saying, 
and  say  it  clearly,  and  only  after  that  turn  his  attention 
to  style. 

The  writer  of  the  last  essay  was  advised  to  write  upon 
some  subject  connected  with  his  school  work.  Ilis  next 
essay  began  thus : 

Air. 

Our  earth  has  many  robes.  First  come  close-fitting  garments 
of  brown  soil,  gray  rock,  or  green  grass,  with  wide  liquid  under- 
skirts of  deep  blue  filling  up  the  spaces  between  their  edges.  Out- 
side of  these  are  more  wonderful  coverings,  fragile  yet  strong, 
transparent,  almost  invisible,  and  folded  round  tlie  earth,  layer 
upon  layer  ;  or,  as  one  might  say,  veil  upon  veil,  each  more  gossa- 
mer-like than  the  last. 

The  last-mentioned  layers  or  veils  form  Earth's  atmosphere — a 
substance  found  everywhere  upon  it  and  pervading  everything 
about  it.  One  may  travel  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  one  may 
journey  by  land  or  by  sea,  one  may  soar  high  in  a  balloon  or 
descend  deep  in  a  mine,  but  one  can  never  go  in  this  world  to  a 
place  where  atmosphere  is  not. 

This  time  the  writer  chose  a  good  subject.  But  his  old 
faults  followed  him.  There  is  the  same  shying  round  the 
subject  instead  of  coming  directly  to  it.  There  is  the  same 
fondness  for  figures.  There  is  the  same  ransacking  of 
earth  and  heaven  for  parallels,  and  the  same  striving  after 
climax  where  no  climax  is  called  for.  Evidently  he  still 
felt  that  the  composition-writer's  chief  duty  is  to  decorate. 


LIMITATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT.  9 

Now  farther  along  in  the  essay  were  to  be  found  such 
straightf orwai'd  sentences  as  these : 

Air  has  a  faint  bluish  tint  which  on  a  sunshiny  day  becomes  in 
the  sky  a  very  pure  and  deep  blue.  This  tint  is  not  believed  to 
be  the  natural  color  of  the  atmosphere.  Were  it  such,  the  air 
would  act  the  part  of  a  blue  pane  of  glass,  rendering  the  white 
light  of  the  sun  blue  as  it  reached  our  eyes.  The  blue  of  the  air 
is  thought  to  be  a  reflected  blue.  If  reflected,  there  must  be 
something  in  the  air  to  reflect  it ;  and  such  indeed  is  the  case. 
Perfectly  pure  air  would  doubtless  be  without  color,  but  perfectly 
pure  air  we  do  not  find.     Etc. 

Here  at  last  was  stuff  of  the  right  sort — good  matter  and 
a  good  manner.  What  the  writer  had  failed  to  realize,  as 
his  introduction  showed,  was  that  such  simple  statements 
of  fact  concerning  the  atmosphere  as  would  satisfy  a  teacher 
of  chemistry  or  of  physics  would  satisfy  a  teacher  of 
composition — just  that  and  nothing  more  or  less.  He 
had  not  yet  learned  that  composition  must  not  be  detached 
from  the  other  activities  of  hand  or  brain,  in  school  or  out. 

4.  Limitation  of  the  Subject.  Another  point  is  sug- 
gested by  this  last  subject.  The  subject  is  of  the  right 
nature,  but  it  is  too  broad  to  be  treated  in  an  ordinary 
school  essay.  Nothing  short  of  a  volume  would  warrant 
the  selection  of  such  an  unqualified  theme  as  "  Air."  The 
briefer  the  title  the  broader  the  theme,  and  consequently 
the  fuller  the  treatment  demanded.  The  theme  before  us 
might  have  been  narrowed  in  many  ways.  The  writer 
might  have  confined  himself  to  the  chemical  composition 
of  air,  to  its  physical  properties,  or  to  its  relation  to  organic 
life.  "The  Blue  Color  of  the  Atmosphere  "  would  con- 
stitute a  good  subject  in  itself. 

Narrowing  the  theme  is  not  only  a  proper  measure  to  take  when 
the  essay  is  to  be  brief :  it  will  be  found  actually  helpful.  Para- 
doxical it  is,  but  the  uvci'nge  writer  will  find  more  to  say  upon  a 
narrow  theme  than  upon  a  broad  one.    So  soon  as  he  confines  his 


10  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

attention  to  one  phase  of  a  subject  details  come  into  view.  And 
writing,  as  he  must,  one  word  at  a  time,  one  sentence  at  a  time, 
he  finds  it  easier  to  deal  with  details.  The  broad  theme  discour- 
ages him  by  its  very  breadth,  puzzles  him  with  its  features  that 
cannot  be  represented  by  a  single  word  or  a  single  sentence.  And 
often  his  knowledge  is  inadequate  and  his  time  is  insufficient  for 
obtaining  adequate  knowledge.  Or  he  may  have  adequate  and  mi- 
nute knowledge  and  yet  lack  a  well-developed  faculty  of  organi- 
zation, so  that  when  he  sits  down  to  write,  his  mass  of  knowledge 
proves  a  real  hindrance  instead  of  a  help. 

EXERCISE. 
Narrow  the  following  subjects  : 

Novel -reading.  India-rubber.  Exercise. 

Whittier.  Photography.  Pessimism. 

5  Kinds  of  Subjects.— A  formal  classification  of  subjects 
maybe  made.  They  fall  naturally  into  four  kinds:  Narra- 
tive, Descriptive,  Expository,  and  Argumentative.  The 
kinds  necessarily  overlap,  and  tliey  are  continually  mingled 
in  actual  composition,  though  in  any  composition  that 
pretends  to  unity  one  kind  must  be  domimmt.  Tales 
are  chiefly  narrative,  so-called  Travels  cliiefly  descriptive. 
Novels  usually  mingle  these  two  kinds.  What  are  techni- 
cally st3'led  Essays,  and  Treati.ses  of  all  kinds — scientific, 
sociological,  critical — are  expository  in  their  nature.  Phil- 
osophical, religious,  and  political  writings  tend  strongly  to 
tlie  argumentative,  llistory  includes  the  first  three  kinds 
of  composition,  and,  if  the  historian  advances  personal  opin- 
ions and  attempts  to  support  them,  it  may  include  the 
fourth.  These  arc  examples  only.  Let  us  define  the  terms 
briefly. 

(1)  Narrative  covqyosition  is  that  which  deals  with  action 
performed  or  suffered,  that  is,  with  deeds  or  experiences, 
with  events  that  occupy  time.  It  may  deal  with  a  single 
incident,  or  it  may  be  carried  to  great  length,  as  in  biogra- 
phy and  history. 


KINDS  OF  SXIBJECTS.  11 

(2)  Description  is  concerned  with  objects  as  they  exist  in 
space,  or  with  individual  qualities  and  attributes.  The 
word  has  a  broader  use  than  this  technical  one,  as  when  we 
speak  of  describing  an  occurrence  or  an  experience,  but  for 
the  purposes  of  rhetoric  it  is  desirable  to  limit  it  to  this 
technical  definition.  Description,  in  this  meaning,  is  prac- 
tically confined  to  short  articles,  scientific  or  literary,  or  to 
brief  interpolations  in  longer  works  where  it  is  merely 
accessory  to  narration  or  exposition.  E.  L.  Stevenson  says: 
'  •  No  human  being  ever  spoke  of  scenery  for  above  two 
minutes  at  a  time,  which  makes  one  suspect  we  hear  too 
much  of  it  in  literature."  The  caution  will  hold  for  other 
things — a  picture,  a  poem,  a  human  being,  as  well  as 
scenery. 

(3)  Exposition  differs  from  description  in  that  it  deals 
with  groups  of  individuals  that  are  similar  in  certain  re- 
spects, or  with  general  qualities  or  abstract  ideas.  We 
describe  "  A  Landscape,"  for  it  is  particular;  it  has  charac- 
teristics peculiar  to  itself,  and  these  it  is  the  oflBce  of  descrip- 
tion to  dwell  on.  We  expound  "  Landscape  in  Literature," 
"  Landscape  Painting,"  or  possibly  even  "  Landscape  Paint- 
ings," for  here  the  emphasis  is  upon  the  general  character- 
istics that  determine  a  class.  If  special  characteristics  are 
mentioned,  it  is  only  incidentally  or  perhaps  for  the  sake  of 
distinguishing  a  sub-class.  Exposition  is  never  very  far 
from  classification,  express  or  implied.  Its  range  is  wide, 
from  the  single-paragraph  editorial  on  some  question  of  the 
day  to  the  voluminous  scientific  treatise. 

(4)  Argumentation  strives  to  establish  the  truth  or  falsity 
of  a  proposition.  Its  range  is  also  wide,  determined  chiefly 
by  the  complexity  of  the  proposition. 

For  further  definition  and  explanation,  see  the  author's  "  Prac- 
tical Course  in  Composition,"  pages  29,  31,  47,  119,  137. 

Of  the  different  kinds  of  composition  narration  and  description 


12  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

are  the  simplest,  as  they  involve  no  general  ideas  or  abstract 
terms.  They  naturally  engage  the  writer's  earliest  attention. 
But  it  is  to  be  noted  also  that  in  their  perfection  they  constitute 
the  very  highest  and  most  difficult  grades  of  composition,  com- 
prising the  major  portion  of  fiction  and  poetry,  of  what  is  some- 
times termed  pure  literature.  As  our  present  purpose  lies 
between  tliese  extremes,  we  shall  give  less  attention  to  narration 
and  description  than  we  otherwise  should,  using  them  only  so  far 
as  they  serve  to  illustrate  general  principles  of  clear  and  effective 
discourse.  The  law  of  unity,  for  example,  is  almost  equally  ap- 
plicable to  all  varieties  of  discourse.  On  the  other  hand,  argu- 
mentation, involving  as  it  does  logic,  and  looking  so  often  toward 
oral  presentation,  as  in  court  pleadings,  demands  a  special  treat- 
ment. Exposition  affords  the  best  field  to  the  writer  who  seeks 
control  of  language  as  a  means  to  an  intellectual  and  not  an  emo- 
tional end,  and  who  is  desirous  of  settling  down  into  a  firm  and 
lucid  style.  Besides,  the  bulk  of  useful  writing  to-day  is  exposi- 
tory in  nature.  This  kind  of  composition,  therefore,  we  shall 
keep  chiefly  in  view. 

Indeed,  it  may  well  be  questioned  whether  narration  and  de- 
scription are  sufficiently  amenable  to  law  to  be  made  profitable 
subjects  of  text-book  study.  They  depend  for  their  success  upon 
the  genius  of  the  writer,  upon  observation,  insight,  imagination, 
passion,  and  that  distillation  of  personality  which  we  call  style. 
Now  style  itself,  apparently  the  most  external  of  these  qualities, 
cannot,  except  in  the  modest  form  described  above  as  "firm and 
lucid,"  be  taught,  but  only  self-taught  or  perhaps  communicated. 
Variety,  for  example,  constitutes  one  of  its  great  charms.  But 
variety  means  license  rather  than  law.  In  short,  poetry  and  fic- 
tion stand  at  an  infinite  remove  from  mechanics.  It  will  always 
be  futile  to  lay  down  laws  for  them  :  the  next  original  genius  will 
violate  the  laws  and  triumph  in  his  violation. 

But  exposition  does  not  require  so  much  in  the  way  of  native 
gifts.  And  exposition,  standing  outside  of  aesthetics,  does  not 
seek  style  primarily — it  is  most  intimately  concerned  with  facts 
and  ideas.  Hence  a  treatise  may  begin,  or  be  constructed 
throughout,  after  a  set  form,  while  a  story  may  not.  Stock 
methods  and  even  stock  phrases  are  a  good  equipment  for  the 
scientific  or  practical  writer,  though  they  must  be  avoided  by  the 


FINDING  MATERIAL.  13 

literary  man,  whose  "  Once  upon  a  tinae"  and  "  They  lived  hap- 
pily  ever  afterward  "  we  never  weary  of  ridiculing.  Stories  and 
descriptions  we  may  of  course  practise  writing,  as  we  carry  along 
our  work  in  composition.  Interest  will  be  better  maintained,  the 
individual  talent  to  be  found  here  and  there  will  be  given  an  op- 
portunity for  development,  and  we  shall  at  least  be  perfecting 
ourselves  all  the  time  in  expression.  But  when  it  comes  to  dis- 
cipline in  the  larger  matters  of  invention  and  organization,  we 
find  ourselves  forced  by  the  nature  of  the  case  into  the  field  of 
exposition. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Examine  the  selections  at  the  end  of  the  book,  determining 
the  kinds  until  the  nature  of  these  kinds  becomes  clear. 

2.  Select  from  the  list  of  miscellaneous  subjects  given  under  2 
those  suitable  for  each  kind  of  composition. 

3.  Which  of  the  following  titles  would  be  suitable  for  an  expo- 
sition ?    A  brief  description  ?     A  novel  ? 

A  Homestead.  The  Homesteader. 

The  Homestead.  Homesteaders. 

The  Old  Homestead.  The  Homestead  Act, 

Homesteads.  Homestead  Exemption. 

.  III.     THE   MATERIAL. 

6.  Finding  Material. — There  are  two  sources  of  mate- 
rial— our  owu  observation  and  experience,  and  the  observa- 
tion and  experience  of  others.  From  the  first  source  come 
personal  narratives  and  memoirs  and  original  scientific  de- 
scriptions; if  we  call  into  play  the  faculty  of  imagination, 
which  transfers  real  objects  and  happenings  to  ideal  cir- 
cumstances, from  this  source  comes  also  the  bulk  of  poetry 
and  fiction,  of  "pure  literature."  From  the  second  source 
come  most  compendiums  of  facts  and  opinions — history, 
expository  essays,  philosophical  and  argumentative  dis- 
course. It  is  impossible,  of  course,  to  make  an  exact  clas- 
sification upon  this  basis — both  sources  are  drawn  upon 


14  TBE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

more  or  less  for  nearly  all  kinds  of  composition.  A  romance 
maybe  "historical,"  and  au  exposition  may  grow  almost 
entirely  out  of  personal  observation.  But  tlie  distinction 
is  a  convenient  one  to  make. 

1.  As  to  the  method  of  obtaining  the  first  kind  of  mate- 
rial, out  of  which  grows  ''first-hand*'  composition,  Ave 
might  simply  say,  Keep  your  eyes  open.  But  this  injunc- 
tion needs  emphasis.  We  must  keep  our  eyes  open  a  very 
long  wliile  sometimes  in  order  to  find  just  the  material  we 
need.  Not  all  things  are  available.  And  not  all  available 
things  will  yield  their  inmost  character  at  a  glance. 
"Talent,"  said  Guy  de  Maupassant,  "consists  in  looking 
at  what  you  are  going  to  write  of  long  enough  and  atten- 
tively enough  to  discover  in  it  something  that  has  not  been 
seen  and  reported  by  any  one  else."  Sit  down  before  your 
subject,  literally  if  possible,  figuratively  at  all  events,  and 
draw  and  color  as  faithfully  as  any  artist  of  the  brush. 

The  testimony  of  authors  to  the  value  of  getting  knowledge  first- 
hand whenever  possible  is  practically  unanimous."^  "  After  I  had 
got  the  people  of  my  novel  grouped  together  iu  my  mind,"  Mr. 
Harold  Frederic  is  reported  as  saying,  "I  set  myself  the  task  of 
knowing  everytliing  they  knew.  As  four  of  thein  happened  to  be 
specialists  in  different  professions,  the  task  has  been  tremendous. 
For  instance,  one  of  them  is  a  biologist,  who,  among  other  things, 
experiments  on  Lubbock's  and  Darwin's  lines.  Although  these 
pursuits  are  merely  mentioned,  I  got  up  masses  of  stuff  on  bees 
and  the  cross-fertilization  of  plants.  I  had  to  teach  myself 
all  the  details  of  a  Methodist  minister's  work,  obligations,  and 
daily  routine,  and  all  the  machinery  of  his  church.  In  the  case  of 
Father  Forbes,  who  is  a  good  deal  more  of  a  pagan  than  a  simple- 
minded  Christian,  and  loves  luxury  and  learning,  I  liad  to  study 
the  arts  lie  loves  as  well  as  his  theology.  I  have  waded  in  Assyri- 
ology  ;iiul  Scliopenhauer,  pored  over  palimpsests  and  pottery,  and 
in  order  to  write  understandingly  about  a  musician  who  figures  iu 

•  For  a  somewhat  different  view,  see  article  ou  "  Local  Color  "  iu  Literature, 
Apr.  :;3,  189a. 


TtNUING  MATERIAL.  15 

the  story,  I  bored  a  professional  friend  to  death  to  get  technical, 
musical  stuff."  Henry  Kingsley  gives  negative  testimony  of  the 
same  nature  when  he  writes  in  "Ravenshoe":  "In  the  natural 
course  of  events  I  ouglit  now  to  follow  Charles  in  his  military 
career  stej)  by  step.  But  the  fact  is  that  I  know  no  more  about 
the  details  of  horse-soldiering  than  a  marine,  and  therefore  I 
cannot." 

Open  Nathaniel  Hawthorne's  "Note Books  "  at  almost  any  page 
and  see  how  continually  he  was  making  and  jotting  down  minute 
observations  for  future  use:  '■'■  October 25. — A  walk  yesterday 
through  Dark  Lane,  and  home  through  the  village  of  Dan  vers. 
Landscape  now  wholly  autumnal.  Saw  an  elderly  man  laden 
with  two  dry,  yellow,  rustling  bundles  of  Indian  cornstalks,  a  good 
personification  of  Autumn.  Another  man  hoeing  up  potatoes. 
Rows  of  white  cabbages  lay  ripening.  Fields  of  dry  Indian  corn. 
The  grass  has  still  considerable  greenness.  Wild  rose-bushes  de- 
void of  leaves,  with  their  deep,  bright  red  seed-vessels.  Meeting- 
house in  Dan  vers  seen  at  a  distance,  with  the  sun  shining  through 
the  windows  of  its  belfry.  Barberry-bushes, — the  leaves  now  of 
a  brown-red,  still  juicy  and  healthy;  very  few  berries  remaining, 
mostly  frost-bitten  and  wilted.  All  among  the  yet  green  grass, 
dry  stalks  of  weeds.  The  down  of  thistles  occasionally  seen  fly- 
ing through  the  sunny  air."  Again:  "There  was  a  stumpy 
clearing  beyond  the  bridge,  where  some  men  were  building  a 
house.  I  went  to  them  and  inquired  if  I  were  in  Massachusetts 
or  Vermont,  and  asked  for  some  water.  Whereupon  they  showed 
great  hospitality,  and  the  master  workman  went  to  the  spring, 
and  brought  delicious  water  in  a  tin  basin,  and  produced  another 
jug  containing  '  new  rum,  and  very  good  ;  and  rum  does  nobody 
any  harm  if  they  make  a  good  use  of  it,'  quoth  he." 

In  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  Macaulay's  History  we  read  :  ' '  Be- 
neath lay  a  valley  now  so  rich  and  so  cheerful  that  an  English- 
man who  gazes  on  it  may  imagine  himself  to  be  in  one  of  the  most 
highly  favored  parts  of  his  own  highly  favored  country.  Fields 
of  wheat,  woodlands,  meadows  bright  with  daisies  and  clover, 
slope  gently  down  to  the  edge  of  the  Boyne."  How  did  Macaulay 
know  ?  His  biographer  has  set  by  the  side  of  the  preceding  the  fol- 
lowing passage  from  his  (Macaulay'sj  journal,  written  after  a 
drive  up  the  Boyne  from  Droglieda  :  "  The  country  looked  like  a 


16  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

flourishing  part  of  England.  Cornfields,  gardens,  woods,  suc- 
ceeded each  other  just  as  in  Kent  and  Warwickshire.  .  .  .  Hand- 
some seats,  fields  of  wheat  and  clover,  noble  trees  :  it  would  be 
called  a  fine  country  even  in  Somersetshire." 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  a  wide  experience  is  of  great  value 
for  higher  literary  work.  The  writings  of  such  men  as  Eudyard 
Kipling  and  Bret  Ilarte  are  proof  of  this.  But  after  all  it  is  not 
breadth  of  experience  so  much  as  it  is  depth  that  counts.  Thorcau 
could  extract  from  the  neighborhood  of  Concord  a  richer  experi- 
ence than  most  men  can  extract  from  the  world.  The  value  of 
material  gained  thus  is  measured  wholly  by  one's  powers  of  obser- 
vation, by  one's  faculty  for  what  Mr.  Ruskin  calls  "  the  earnest 
and  intense  seizing  of  natural  facts."  George  Henry  Lewes  has 
put  it  thus  :  "  All  good  literature  rests  primarily  on  insight.  All 
bad  literature  rests  upon  imperfect  insight,  or  upon  imitation, 
which  may  be  defined  as  seeing  at  second-hand.  ...  So  little  do 
writers  appreciate  the  importance  of  direct  vision  and  experience 
that  they  are  in  general  silent  about  what  they  themselves  have 
seen  and  felt,  copious  in  reporting  the  experiences  of  others.  They 
are  as  if  dismayed  at  their  own  individuality,  and  suppress  all 
traces  of  it  in  order  to  catch  the  general  tone." 

2.  The  second  source  of  material,  the  observation  and 
experience  of  others,  concerns  exposition  more  nearly. 
The  product  is  in  a  sense  second-hand  composition.  But 
we  may  distinguish  two  classes.  The  first  comprises  mere 
compendiums,  annals,  and  documentary  briefs,  the  results 
of  the  collection  and  collation  of  already  existing  material. 
Sliglit  originality  goes  into  such  work.  Some  art  in  selec- 
tion and  some  power  of  organization  sutfice.  The  utmost 
honesty  in  giving  credit  should  be  observed,  likewise  the 
utmost  precision  in  i-eferring  to  sources,  whether  in  a  gen- 
eral bibliography  or  in  special  marginal  or  foot  notes  or  in 
parentheses.  In  the  second  class  the  material  gathered  by 
other  men  is  no  less  industriously  sought  and  sifted,  but 
the  writer  brings  to  bear  upon  this  material  such  powers 
of  analysis  and  synthesis,  and   adds  to  it  from   his  own 


FINDING   MATERIAL.  17 

experience  so  much  that  is  illustrative  and  interpretative, 
that  his  work  becomes  a  genuine  contribution  to  literature, 
in  which  the  personality  of  the  man  counts  for  almost  as 
much  as  do  the  facts  and  opinions  in  which  he  deals.  A 
sufficiently  gifted  writer  will  live  himself  into  a  dead  fact 
until  that  fact  is  made  to  live  again  through  him.  lie 
will  so  link  on  the  experiences  of  other  men  to  his  own 
and  to  our  own  that  human  life  and  science  become  trans- 
figured in  our  eyes  and  we  are  stirred  as  if  by  the  touch  of 
a  creative  genius.  Thus  are  born  the  historical  essays  of  a 
Macaulay,  the  critical  essays  of  a  Sainte-Beuve  or  a 
Matthew  Arnold,  the  moral  essays  of  a  Montaigne  or  an 
Emerson. 

Somewhere  between  these  two  classes  lie  the  major  portion  of 
the  articles  that  fill  our  magazines  to-day,  and  the  mass  of  books 
that  are  put  out  in  the  various  departments  of  philosophy  and 
science.  Sometimes  these  descend  to  mere  statistics,  sometimes 
statistics  themselves  are  transmuted  into  a  "  criticism  of  life." 
The  genius  that  alouewill  enable  us  to  accomplish  this  latter  feat 
we  may  not  provide,  but  we  can  at  least  pry  into  the  methods 
followed  and  turn  the  knowledge  gained  to  our  humbler  ends. 
"  I  can  only  gather  wood  and  lay  it  on  the  altar,"  said  Goethe  ; 
"  the  fire  must  descend  from  heaven." 

Note  a  few  of  the  documents  which,  among  others,  George  Ban- 
croft gathered  and  used  in  the  preparation  of  Volume  lA^  of  his 
"History  of  the  United  States"  :  "Particularly  the  original,  un- 
j)ublished  Journal  of  the  Committee  of  Correspondence  of  Massa- 
chusetts :  letters  from  public  committees  from  places  as  far 
south  as  Savannah,  most  of  them  unpublished  and  never  read  by 
any  writer  of  Americau  history ;  .  .  .  unpublished  letters  from 
Samuel  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  as  agent  for  Massachusetts, 
John  Adams,  Kichard  Henry  Lee,"  etc.,  etc.  Again,  a  critic 
writes  :  "  Mr.  Bancroft,  who  was  Ambassador  to  London  in  1846- 
49,  had  the  Government  Archives  of  England  and  France  freely 
thrown  open  to  him  and  also  was  allowed  free  access  to  the  pri- 
vate papers  of  the  noble  and  political  families  in  both  countries 
whose  ancestors  had  been  mixed  up  in  our  contest.     Well  and 


18  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

wisely  has  he  used  them.  AVe  had  occasion,  when  his  sixth 
vohime  appeared,  to  go  over  it  as  criticallj'  as  we  could,  and  it  is 
to  the  credit  of  his  accuracy  that  we  were  able  to  discover  only  a 
single  inaccuracy.  That  was  where  he  committed  tautology  by 
speaking  of  the  county  of  Yovkshire.''' 

Macaulay's  method  may  be  learned  from  the  following 
entries  in  his  journal,  as  preserved  by  Sir  George  0.  Tre- 
velyan : 

"  February  8th,  1849. — I  have  now  made  up  my  mind  to  change 
my  plan  about  my  Hi.story.  I  will  first  set  myself  to  know  the 
whole  subject ;  to  get,  by  reading  and  travelling,  a  full  acquaint- 
ance with  William's  reign.  I  reckon  it  will  take  me  eighteen 
months  to  do  this.  I  must  visit  Holland,  Belgium,  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, France.  The  Dutch  archives  and  French  archives  must  be 
ransacked.  I  will  see  whether  anything  is  to  be  got  from  other 
diplomatic  collections.  I  must  see  Londonderry,  the  Boyne, 
Aghrira.  Limerick,  Kin.sale,  Namur  again,  Landen,  Steinkirk.  I 
must  turn  over  hundreds,  thousands,  of  pamphlets.  Lambeth, 
the  Bodleian,  and  the  other  Oxford  libraries,  the  Devonshire 
Papers,  the  British  Museum,  must  be  explored,  and  notes  made  ; 
and  tlien  I  shall  go  to  work.  ...  I  began  to-day  with  Avaux's 
dispatches  from  Ireland,  abstracted  almost  a  whole  thick  volume, 
and  compared  his  narrative  with  James's." 

"  October  2d,  1854. — I  called  on  the  warden  of  All  Souls',  who 
was  the  only  soul  in  residence.  He  was  most  kind  ;  got  me  the 
manuscript  of  Narcissus  Luttrell's  Diary — seven  thick  volumes  in 
cramped  writing  ;  put  me  into  a  comfortable  room  ;  and  then  left 
me  to  myself." 

"  October  3d. — I  went  to  All  Souls'  at  ten,  and  worked  till  five. 
Narcissus  is  dreadfully  illegible  in  1696  ;  but  that  matters  the  less, 
as  by  that  time  the  newspapers  had  come  in." 

Carlyle,  aprojjos  of  his  "  French  Revolution,"  writes  in  a  letter 
to  his  brother  :  "  For  tlie  present  I  am  busy  reading  all  manner 
of  Memoirs  of  Mirabeau  ;  especially  a  late  large  work  by  a  '■fils 
adoptif  of  his.  If  they  have  it  in  Rome  (four  volumes  are 
already  out),  you,  too,  might  find  it  interesting.  Mill  got  it,  I 
may  almost  say  bought  it,  for  me,  the  other  day:  he  is,  as  al- 
ways, the  most  helpful  of  book-providers  (I  have  some  hundred 


FINDING  MATERIAL.  19 

and  fifty  volumes  of  liis  even  now  ! ),  and  really  seems  to  take  a 
pleasure  in  assisting  me."  Carlyle,  however,  was  not  a  man  to 
place  entire  dependence  on  books.  In  another  letter  to  his 
brother  we  find  him  writing  :  "  My  grand  task,  as  you  already 
know,  is  the  '  French  Revolution '  ;  which,  alas,  perplexes  me 
much.  More  Books  on  it,  I  find,  are  but  a  repetition  of  those  be- 
fore read  ;  I  learn  nothing  or  almost  nothing  further  by  Books  : 
yet  am  I  as  far  as  possible  from  understanding  it." 

Emerson  was  also  an  indiistrious  gatherer  of  material,  although, 
as  was  natural  in  view  of  his  temperament  and  his  purpose,  he 
depended  even  less  than  Carlyle  on  books.  Whatever  of  foreign 
matter  he  chose  to  use  was  so  transformed  in  the  alembic  of  his 
own  mind  that  its  source  can  scarcely  be  recognized.  Mr.  J.  J. 
Chapman  describes  his  method  :  "  From  boyhood  onward  he  kept 
journals  and  commonplace-books,  and  in  the  course  of  his  read- 
ing and  meditation  he  collected  innumerable  notes  and  quota- 
tions which  he  indexed  for  ready  use.  In  these  mines  he  '  quar- 
ried,'as  Mr.  Cabot  says,  for  his  lectures  and  essays.  When  he 
needed  a  lecture  he  went  to  the  repository,  threw  together  what 
seemed  to  have  a  bearing  on  some  subject,  and  gave  it  a  title." 

The  indexes  that  are  indispensable  for  putting  one  on  the  track 
of  whatever  has  already  been  written  on  a  given  subject  are 
Poole's  Index  to  Periodical  Literature,  the  A.  L.  A.  (American 
Library  Association)  Index  to  General  Literature,  and  the  Annual 
Literary  Index.  The  reports  from  the  various  governmental  de- 
partments will  afford  a  great  amount  of  matei-ial  for  this  kind  of 
work.  For  example,  from  the  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture for  1888  an  interesting  article  on  "  Ostrich-farming  in 
America  "  can  be  written.  From  special  consular  reports  can  be 
worked  up  many  such  subjects  as  "  The  Manufacture  of  Carpets 
in  Foreign  Countries,"  "Fig-culture  in  Sicily." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Take  a  short  walk  with  the  object  of  noting  carefully  what- 
ever may  appeal  most  strongly  to  your  interest.  Write  out  your 
observations  in  some  such  manner  as  Hawthorne  was  accustomed 
to  do  (see  quotation  above),  so  that  they  could  be  turned  to 
account  at  any  time  in  the  future  when  you  might  desire  to 


20  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

describe  a  similar  walk  with  accurate  accompaniments  of  scene 
and  incident. 

2.  Take  a  short  walk  over  a  familiar  road  with  the  object  of 
discovering  some  feature  of  the  surroundings  that  you  had  never 
noticed  before.     Make  written  notes,  as  above. 

3.  Describe  your  room,  briefly  and  yet  with  the  endeavor  to 
seize  its  most  salient  and  characteristic  features,  so  that  the 
description  could  not  possibly  fit  any  other  room. 

4.  Find  a  combination  of  three  adjectives  (two,  if  possible)  that 
will  describe  one  of  your  friends  and  no  other. 

5.  Keep  a  diary  for  a  week,  and  at  the  end  of  the  time  organize 
the  matter  thus  gathered  into  a  sketch  under  some  such  title  as 
"  A  Week  of  My  Life,"  or  "  One  Week's  Record." 

6.  Make  notes  from  the  Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys  intended  to 
illustrate  some  phase  of  social  life  in  England  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  same  thing  may  be  done  for  colonial  life  in  America 
from  the  diary  of  Samuel  Sewall. 

7.  Gather  from  a  late  number  of  the  Statesmati's  Year-hook,  or 
Whitaker''s  Almaitack,  or  the  World  Almanac  material  for  an 
essay  on  some  such  subject  as  Tasmania,  Victoria,  Productions 
and  Commerce  of  Greece,  Pauperism  in  Italy.  Or  gather  material 
for  a  comparison  of,  let  us  say,  the  Systems  of  Public  Education 
in  Europe  or  the  Fleets  of  the  South  American  Republics.  Or 
follow  the  same  subject  through  a  number  of  successive  issues  of 
these  volumes  and  make  notes  upon  changes  that  have  taken 
place — the  decrease,  for  example,  of  crime  and  pauperism  in  a 
certain  country,  the  growth  of  the  Japanese  navy,  the  decline  of 
Spanish  power. 

7.  Accrediting  Material. — The  student  of  composition 
should  not,  in  his  practice-work,  entertain  the  idea  that  he 
may  freely  appropriate  without  change  of  form  whatever 
matter  he  finds  in  encyclopgedias  or  elsewhere.  When 
matter  is  thus  used  it  should  invariably  be  enclosed  in 
quotation-marks  and  accredited  to  its  author,  unless  it  be 
a  phrase  so  familiar  that  every  one  will  recognize  it. 
"When  it  is  desirable  to  add  an  exact  book,  chapter,  and 
page  or  line  reference,  as  in  historical  theses,  the  author's 


ACCREDITING  MATERIAL.  21 

name  and  the  reference  are  usually  given  in  a  marginal  or 
foot  note.  Literary  etliics  to-day  require  absolute  pre- 
cision in  quoting.  If  the  quoter  supplies  even  a  necessary 
word  of  his  own  within  a  quotation,  that  word  must  be 
enclosed  in  brackets.  Similarly,  if  any  intermediate  words 
or  sentences  are  omitted,  the  omission  must  be  indicated 
by  a  series  of  dots  or  asterisks.     Thus : 

Lowell  says  :  "  As  to  the  nature  of  his  [Dante's]  studies,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  he  went  through  the  trivium  (grammar, 
dialectic,  rhetoric)  and  the  quadrivium  (arithmetic,  music,  geom- 
etry, and  astronomy)  of  the  then  ordinary  university  course.  To 
these  he  afterward  added  painting.  ...  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  pupil  of  Cimabue,  and  was  certainly  the  friend  of  Giotto." 

For  another  illustration  see  Appendix  C  xviii,  1. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  should  not  be  entertained 
that  a  mere  change  of  form  releases  one  from  the  obliga- 
tion of  accrediting  borrowed  matter.  Of  course  an  estab- 
lished fact  of  history  or  of  science  is  common  property, 
and  the  writer  using  it  needs  only  to  concern  himself  with 
stating  it  in  a  form  that  suits  his  purpose.  But  wherever 
there  is  a  shadow  of  personal  claim  to  property  in  an  idea, 
that  claim  should  be  recognized.  In  using  foreign  matter 
on  a  large  scale,  as  in  historical  work,  the  essential  point 
is  that  the  writer  should  first  of  all  have  a  distinct  subject 
and  design  of  his  own  and  then  make  the  material  con- 
form to  his  design.  Such  a  course  will  preclude  the 
charge  of  imitation  or  plagiarism.  It  would  be  wise  in 
every  case,  in  practice  composition,  not  only  to  work  out  a 
design  beforehand,  but  to  write  as  much  wholly  original 
matter  as  possible  and  then  amplify  or  modify  this  with 
the  material  gathered  from  other  sources. 
EXERCISE. 

Compare  Appendix  B,  selections  v,  xi,  and  xiv,  with  C  xviii, 
XX,  and  xxii,  noting  whether  the  sources  of  material  are  indicated 
with  as  much  care  and  clearness  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter. 


22  THE    WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

8.  Use  of  Material. — Selection  must  follow  collection. 
What  to  say  is  the  first  question.  What  not  to  say  is  the 
second.  The  subject,  with  the  chosen  limitations,  should 
be  kept  in  mind  always,  and  whatever  does  not  bear  clearly 
or  directly  upon  it  should  be  steadfastly  rejected,  unless, 
indeed,  the  composition  is  of  the  most  informal  kind  and 
the  writer  is  deliberately  giving  the  reins  to  his  fancy.  If 
"  A  Summer  in  the  Country  "  be  the  subject,  clearly  prom- 
ising a  narrative  sketch,  one  half  of  the  article  should  not 
be  given  over  to  general  remarks  upon  what  country  life 
in  summer  means.  If  Grasmere  Lake  be  the  subject,  it 
would  be  a  mistake  to  speak  more  than  incidentally  of 
Wordsworth  and  his  work,  because  the  fugitive  life  of  a 
man  can  play  but  a  small  part  in  the  history  of  more  per- 
manent objects  in  nature.  Grasmere  Lake  would  remain 
Avhat  it  is  even  if  Wordsworth  had  never  been,  although 
undoubtedly  he  contributed  much  to  our  interest  in  it. 
But  if  Wordsworth  be  the  centre  of  interest,  then  Words- 
worth should  be  our  theme.  And  with  that  theme  given 
it  is  quite  conceivable  that  Grasmere  Lake  should  figure 
largely  in  our  composition,  for  the  objects  and  aspects  of 
nature  do  have  a  direct  and  deep  influence  on  the  lives 
of  men. 

Much,  however,  that  is  admissible  on  grounds  of  logic  is 
not  admissible  on  grounds  of  expediency.  The  purpose 
of  the  composition  should  be  allowed  due  influence  in  this 
matter.  When  the  pur})ose  is  instruction,  as  in  a  scientific 
treatise,  everything  may  be  included  that  is  necessary  to 
make  the  treatise  exhaustive.  But  when  the  purpose  is 
entertainment,  as  in  most  literature,  much  must  be  merely 
suggested  and  much  must  be  rejected  altogether,  for  "  the 
art  of  boring  people  is  to  tell  everything."  In  a  general 
essay  on  the  prune  industry  it  would  be  unnecessary  and 
out  of  place   to  say  that  two    fivepeiiny  nails  are  driven 


USE  OF  MATERIAL.  23 

through  each  end  of  each  shake  in  the  manufacture  of 
drying-trays.  But  in  an  article  for  an  orchardists'  journal 
on  the  home-drying  of  prunes,  especially  if  the  article  is  to 
be  accompanied  with  illustrative  diagrams,  these  details 
would  be  wholly  appropriate.  The  readers  must  be  consid- 
ered, too,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  meant  to  be 
affected.  A  fact  drawn  from  sacred  history  bears  to  most 
men  a  different  import  from  a  fact  drawn  from  profane 
history.  Cotton  Mather  could  carry  conviction  to  his 
Puritan  readers  by  invoking  the  names  of  Polyander  and 
Festus  Hommius,  "  those  famous  divines  ";  we  can  scarcely 
find  out  to-day  who  Polyander  and  Festus  Hommius  were. 
With  most  modern  readers  a  quotation  from  Plato  would 
not  carry  so  much  weight  as  a  quotation  from  Gladstone, 
while  with  some  readers  a  quotation  from  a  demagogue  of 
local  renown  would  have  more  weight  than  either.  No 
writer  can  afford  to  ignore  his  audience. 

Again,  the  length  of  the  composition,  which  should  be 
approximately  determined  beforehand,  must  settle  many 
questions  as  to  admission  or  exclusion  of  details.  Some- 
times a  particular  matter  will  bear  expansion  and  there  is 
space  for  it.  We  allow  details  to  swarm  in.  Fact  supports 
fact,  and  opinion  supports  opinion.  Illustrations  of  all 
kinds  are  welcome.  A  general  truth  is  supported  by  our 
own  experience;  a  surprising  incident  finds  explanation  in 
the  working  of  some  hidden  law.  More  often,  however, 
we  must  compress  the  material  we  have  gathered  into 
smaller  compass.  It  is  well,  too,  that  it  is  so,  for  con- 
densation is  a  safer  process  than  exj^ansion.  But  this 
whole  matter  is  one  that  ultimately  concerns  proportion, 
and  the  discussion  of  it  will  come  up  again  when  we  reacli 
that  point. 

Unquestionably  one  of  the  secrets  of  good  writing  is  to  become 
first  of  all  so  full  of  yoiir  subject  tliat  you  need  to  give  to  tliQ 


24  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

reader  only  a  tithe  of  what  you  possess.  Writer  and  reader  alike 
have  more  confidence  when  they  know  there  is  plenty  of  ammuni- 
tion in  reserve.  The  historian  in  particular  must  go  through  vast 
quantities  of  material  which  he  will  not  use  at  all  or  which  he  will 
use  only  in  the  most  abridged  form. 

It  will  be  profitable  in  this  connection  to  examine  again  Mac- 
aulay's  practice.  "Take  at  hazard  any  three  pages  of  the  'Es- 
says' or  'History,'"  says  Thackeray,  "and,  glimmering  below 
the  stream  of  the  narrative,  you,  an  average  reader,  see  one,  two, 
three,  a  half-score  of  allusions  to  other  historic  facts,  characters, 
literature,  poetry,  with  which  you  are  acquainted.  Your  neigh- 
bor, who  has  his  reading  and  his  little  stock  of  literature  stowed 
away  in  his  mind,  shall  detect  more  points,  allusions,  happy 
touches,  indicating  not  only  the  prodigious  memory  and  vast 
learning  of  this  master,  but  the  wonderful  industry,  the  honest, 
humble  previous  toil  of  this  great  scholar.  He  reads  twenty  books 
to  write  a  sentence  ;  he  travels  a  hundred  miles  to  make  a  line  of 
description."  Let  us  try  this  more  closely.  In  the  third  chapter 
of  the  "Histoi'y  "  are  these  sentences  :  "The  rising  importance  of 
Leeds  had  attracted  the  notice  of  successive  governments.  Charles 
the  First  had  granted  municipal  privileges  to  the  town.  Oliver 
had  invited  it  to  send  one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  But 
from  the  returns  of  the  hearth-money  it  seems  certain  that  the 
whole  population  of  the  borough,  an  extensive  district  which  con- 
tains many  hamlets,  did  not,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second, 
exceed  seven  thousand  souls.  In  1841  there  were  more  than  a 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand."  Trevelyan,  in  order  to  give  us  an 
insight  into  the  way  in  which  Macaulay  arrived  at  one  of  these 
facts,  prints  two  of  his  letters  : 

July  17,  1848. 

Dear  Ellis, — Many  thanks  for  your  kindness.  Pray  let  Dr. 
Hook  know,  whenever  you  have  an  opportunity,  how  much  I  am 
obliged  to  him.  The  information  which  he  has  procured  for  me, 
1  am  sorry  to  say,  is  not  sucli  as  I  can  use.  But  you  need  not  tell 
him  so.  I  feel  convinced  that  he  has  made  some  mistake  :  for  he 
sends  me  only  a  i^art  of  the  Leeds  burials  in  1685;  and  yet  the 
number  is  double  that  of  the  Manchester  burials  in  the  same  year. 
If  the  ordinary  rules  of  calculation  are  applied  to  these  data,  it 
will  be  found  tliat  Leeds  must  in  1685  have  contained  16,000  souls 


ns^  OF  MATERIAL.  25 

or  thereabouts.  Now,  at  the  beginning  of  the  American  war 
Leeds  contained  only  16,000  souls,  as  appears  from  Dr.  Hook's 
own  letter.  Nobody  can  suppose  that  there  had  been  no  increase 
between  1685  and  1775.  Besides,  neither  York  nor  Exeter  con- 
tained 16,000  inhabitants  in  1685,  and  nobody  who  knows  the 
state  of  things  at  that  time  can  believe  that  Leeds  was  then  a 
greater  town  than  York  or  Exeter.  Either  some  error  has  been 
committed  or  else  there  was  an  extraordinary  mortality  at  Leeds 
in  1685.     In  either  case  the  numbers  are  useless  for  my  purpose. 

Ever  yours,  T.  B.  M. 

July  27,  1848. 

Dear  Ellis,— Many  thanks.  Wardell  is  the  man.  He  gives  a 
much  better  thing  than  a  list  of  burials— a  list  of  the  houses  re- 
turned by  the  hearth-money  collectors.  It  appears  that  Leeds  con- 
tained, in  1663,  just  1400  houses.  And  observe,  all  the  townships 
are  included.  The  average  number  of  people  to  a  house  in  a 
country  town  was,  according  to  the  best  statistical  writers  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  4.3.  If  that  estimate  be  just,  Leeds  must, 
in  1663,  have  contained  about  6000  souls.  As  it  increased  in  trade 
and  wealth  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  we  may  well  suppose 
that  in  1G85  the  population  was  near  8000— that  is  to  say,  about 
as  much  as  the  population  of  Manchester.  I  had  expected  this 
result  from  observing  that  by  the  writers  of  that  time  Manchester 
and  Leeds  are  always  mentioned  as  of  about  the  same  size.  But 
this  evidence  proves  to  demonstration  either  that  there  was  some 
mistake  about  the  number  of  burials  or  that  the  year  1685  was  a 
singularly  unhealthy  year,  from  which  no  inference  can  be  drawn. 
One  person  must  have  died  in  every  third  house  within  twelve 
months — a  rate  of  mortality  quite  frightful. 

Ever  yours,  T.  B.  Macaulay. 

Trevelyan's  comment  is  to  the  point :  "It  must  be  remembered 
that  these  letters  represent  only  a  part  of  the  trouble  which 
Macaulay  underwent  in  order  to  insure  the  correctness  of  five 
and  a  half  lines  of  print.  .  .  .  Any  one  who  will  turn  to  the 
description  of  the  town  of  Leeds,  and  will  read  the  six  para- 
graphs that  precede  it  and  the  three  that  follow  it  [descriptive  of 
other  towns],  may  form  a  conception  of  the  pains  which  those 
clear  and  flowing  periods  must  have  cost  an  author  who  expended 


S6  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

on  the  pointing  of  a  piirase  as  much  conscientious  research  as 
would  have  provided  some  writers  who  speak  of  Maeaulay  ns 
showy  and  sliallow  with  at  least  half  a  dozen  pages  of  ostenta- 
tious statistics." 

The  good  effect  of  dispensing  with  all  superfluous 
explanations  in  composition  that  is  intended  to  be  enter- 
taining may  be  marked  in  the  following  extract  from  a 
story : 

The  street-lamps  winked  and  twinkled  in  the  warm  spring  rain. 
In  the  shadows  the  pavements  shone  like  great  blocks  of  polished 
black  marble.  The  roar  of  the  city  was  hushed  and  subdued. 
The  very  air  breathed  of  green  grasses  and  flowers.  The  crowd, 
their  black  umbrellas  powdered  with  sparkling  brilliants,  surged 
back  and  forth,  gazing  into  shop  windows,  gaping  at  passing  car- 
riages, and  jostling  each  other  from  side  to  side  with  rare  good 
nature.  All  were  happy ;  all  were  smiling ;  spring  had  come — 
spring  with  its  fragrance  and  flowers,  spring  with  its  bright 
sunshine  and  warm  rains. 

"Violets?"  pleaded  the  black-eyed  vender. 

"All  of  them!  No  ;  I  can't  carry  so  many."  But  Carrington 
filled  his  arms  from  the  boy's  basket  and  then  hailed  a  i)assing 
cab. 

"She  likes  violets,"  he  murmured;  "so  do  I"- — burying  his 
face  in  the  fragrant  blossoms. 

"  No.  3938,"  said  the  driver,  throwing  open  the  cab  door. 

Carrington  I'an  up  the  stairs  and  was  admitted  without  delay. 

"Tuberoses  !"  he  exclaimed  disdainfully  ;  "time  for  tuberoses 
when  one  is  dead.  I  have  brought  you  some  violets.  Throw  the 
others  away." 

"Will!" 

He  had  opened  the  window.  Some  street  gamins  were  slipping 
and  scrambling  over  the  pavement — scrambling  for  the  pure 
white  blossoms. 

"  There  is  life  in  violets,"  he  apologized. 

Or  for  swiftness  of  narration  secured  by  similar  ellipsis 
take  the  following  two  lines,  also  from  a  short  story; 
"  O  girls,  I  know  an  ideal  spot !" 
It  was  ideal. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL.  27 

9.  Arrangement  of  Material. — Let  us  uuderstaud  the 
term  organization.  An  organism  is  made  up  of  parts,  but 
it  is  something  more  than  a  mere  aggregation  of  ])arts. 
The  parts  have  a  vital  relation  to  one  another  beyond 
the  accidental  relation  of  nearness.  They  are  mutually 
dependent,  so  that  one  has  no  meaning  apart  from 
the  otliers,  or  j^erhaps  cannot  even  exist  in  the  same  form 
apart  from  the  others.  From  this  vital  and  necessary 
relation  between  the  parts  it  comes  that  the  organism  has 
a  unity  of  its  own.  We  speak  of  it  as  one  thing.  A  mere 
conglomeration  remains  always  many  things.  The  liuman 
body  is  an  organism.  It  is  a  perfect  unit  only  when 
every  part  is  present  and  performing  its  function.  And 
the  parts  have  no  meaning  when  severed  from  the  whole. 
Cut  off  the  hand  and  it  is  no  longer  a  hand.  Its  func- 
tions and  attributes,  even  to  its  external  appearance, 
perish,  A  machine  may  be  called  an  organism.  A  piece 
of  machinery  picked  up  by  the  roadside  is  only  a  cause  of 
perplexity  to  the  mind  that  is  ignorant  of  its  place  and 
purpose.  As  it  is,  it  is  useless.  And  tlie  machine  to  wliich 
it  belongs  may  be  useless  until  it  is  restored.  A  state  is 
an  organism,  political  and  social.  A  poem  is  an  organism. 
Every  word,  every  rime,  that  is  essential  to  the  meaning 
and  effect  of  the  whole  is  organic.  Every  part  that  could 
be  lopped  off,  that  does  not  play  into  the  other  parts,  that 
is  no  true  organ,  is  inorganic.  A  composition  should  be 
an  organism.  Its  parts  should  be  adapted  to  one  anotlier, 
should  grow  into  or  out  of  one  another,  and  should  severally 
and  collectively  serve  the  whole.  The  ordering  and  adapta- 
tion of  these  parts  so  as  to  constitute  this  composite  unity 
is  the  process  of  organization. 

1.  The  prime  governing  principle  in  putting  together  a 
composition  is  no  doubt  unity.  Much  will  have  been 
already  done  toward  securing  this  by  following  the  counsel 


28  THS   WHOLE  COMPOSITION 

given  in  the  sections  on  Limitation  of  the  Subject,  The 
Title,  and  Use  of  Material.  The  term  unity,  however, 
must  not  be  construed  too  narrowly.  As  pointed  out  in 
the  last  paragraph,  this  unity  has  parts,  whole  systems  and 
sub-systems  of  parts,  just  as  the  body  has  its  nervous  and 
respiratory  systems,  its  blood  and  tissue,  and  in  the  last 
analysis  its  cells.  It  is  a  unity  that  comes  as  a  result  of 
unification.  The  theme  may  be  treated  in  its  various 
aspects  and  divisions.  It  will  often  fall  naturally  into  two 
opposing  parts  :  a  coin  has  two  faces.  And  the  parts, 
whether  two  or  more,  may  divide  and  subdivide  almost 
without  limit.  The  restraint  is  found  in  the  necessity  of 
preserving  a  relation  that  will  be  always  felt.  The  whole 
matter  may  be  easily  illustrated.  Let  us  assume  the  sub- 
ject "  Cost  of  an  Electrical  Plant."  It  is  naturally  divided 
thus: 

SCost  of  producing  energy, 
and 
Cost  of  transmitting  energy. 
The  second  division  may  be  subdivided  thus  : 

^     ,     -  ,  ., , .  (  First  cost  of  conductor,  and 

Cost  of  transmittmg  energy  j  ^^^^  ^^  installation. 

Now  under  the  first  of  these  subdivisions  come  two  con- 
siderations : 

Increase  of  size  means  increase  of 

first  cost,  but 
Increase  of  size  means  decrease  in 
amount  of  energy  wasted. 
Whether  the  divisions  be  in  the  nature  of  simple  partitions 
or   of  contrasted  aspects,    the  essential  unity  of   an  essay 
built  up  after  such  a  plan  is  at  once  evident. 

2.  Logical  sequence  is  the  second  requisite.  A  natural 
order  in  the  arrangement  of  parts  can  nearly  always  be 
found — that  is  to  say,  an  order  that  is  in  the  nature  of 
things.     The  choice  of  order  is  virtually  reduced  to  a  choice 


First  cost  of  conductor 


AmANGEMENT  Of  MATEBtAL.  '29 

between  two :  the  order  of  time,  and  the  order  of  cause  and 
effect.  The  first  prevails  in  narrative  writing,  the  second  in 
argumentative.  ExjDosition  employs  both.  In  description 
the  process  may  seem  to  be  different  :  we  describe  together 
the  elements  that  are  found  together  in  the  object  described, 
we  begin  with  the  general  view  and  proceed  to  details,  or 
we  begin  with  the  most  salient  features  and  continue  with 
those  that  demand  closer  scrutiny.  But  this,  it  is  evident, 
is  following  for  the  most  part  the  order  in  which  things  are 
seen  by  the  eye,  and  that  is  after  all  a  temporal  order.  A 
geologist  who  should  describe  Yellowstone  Park  would 
begin  by  going  back  150,000  years.  His  object,  however, 
would  be  to  show  the  conditions  that  existed  then  in  order 
to  account  for  the  conditions  found  now.  His  order  would 
be  more  strictly  logical  than  chronological.  A  tourist 
would  describe  the  same  thing  by  taking  us  in  imagination 
over  the  ordinary  route  of  travel.  His  order  would  really 
be  a  chronological  one;  or  it  would  be  a  logical  order  only 
in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  was  used  at  the  beginning 
of  this  paragraph — that  is,  it  would  be  a  natural  order. 
Again,  if  one  were  writing  about  marketing  prunes,  one 
would  not  speak  of  commissions  first,  and  the  cost  of  pick- 
ing second,  and  freight  rates  third,  and  the  cost  of  boxes 
and  packing  fourth.  One  would  find  a  more  natural  order. 
In  an  outline  of  a  theme  entitled  "  Cooperative  House- 
keeping" is  found  this  inexplicable  arrangement  : 

'Diminution    of 
labor, 

T>  £      L\.  IX.    e  1.x,         i  Spread  of  commun- 

Keasons  lor  the  growth  oi  the  system-^     ^.  ,■    -i  ,  , 

I  Reduction    of    ex- 

(^     pense. 

Why  is  the  visionary  consideration  thrust  between  the  two 

practical  ones  ?     One  can  see  how  the  first  point  may  lead 

to  the  second,  but  what  will  bridge  over  the  gap  to  the 


30  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

third?  If  we  put  the  third  first,  tlie  difficulty  will  be 
obviated.  The  "saving"  idea  will  then  connect  the 
first  and  the  second,  while  the  "labor"  idea  in  the  second 
may  be  employed,  albeit  somewhat  arbitrarily,  to  suggest 
the  third.  Always  let  an  essay  follow  some  line  of  natural 
development,  let  it  grow. 

3.  The  third  consideration  is  relative  emjjliasis.  How  to 
secure  the  desired  emphasis  for  important  parts  is  much  a 
matter  of  projiortion,  and  that  must  be  dealt  with  in  the 
actual  writing  of  the  composition.  But  one  point  is  to  be 
observed  in  the  arrangement  of  material.  The  emphatic 
positions  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  In  the  whole 
composition  one  would  say  that  by  all  means  the  most  em- 
phatic position  is  the  end.  It  is  possible  that  this  law  is 
reversed  in  description,  but  exposition  and  argument  should 
attend  to  climax  no  less  surely  than  a  story  should.  In 
general  the  climax,  the  rising  to  important  matters,  should 
become  apparent  toward  the  end — it  need  not  be  souglit  for 
throughout.  Minor  matters  may  be  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning, particularly  if  such  a  procedure  constitutes  a  sort  of 
preliminary  clearing  of  the  ground,  or  they  may  be  sunk 
in  the  middle  of  the  composition  where  they  will  be 
touched  hurriedly  and  lightly. 

10.  The  Outline. — A  preliminary  draft  or  sketch  is  not 
indispensable  for  the  writing  of  a  composition.  Whole 
books  get  themselves  written  when  the  writer  does  not 
know  from  one  page  to  another  what  is  to  follow.  But 
these  are  tlie  exceptions.  The  chances  of  securing  unity 
and  symmetry  by  this  method  are  slight.  The  penny-a- 
liner,  whose  sole  care  is  to  keep  things  moving,  may  adopt 
it ;  but  the  writer  with  a  serious  purpose  will  not.  Ex- 
position and  argument  in  particular  demand  forethought 
and  planning.  An  outline  is  not  always  written,  not 
usually,  perhaps,  except  in  the  form  of  rude  jottings  and 


THE  OUTLINE.  81 

memoranda,  for  most  writers  find  it  necessary  to  modify 
their  preconceptions  as  their  work  develops.  But  the  result 
is  the  same.  The  work  is  built  up  more  or  less  in  accord- 
ance with  a  first  plan.  It  is  the  making  of  this  first  plan 
that  we  desire  to  consider. 

The  process  consists  simply  in  jotting  down  all  the  ideas 
that  are  suggested  by  the  selected  theme,  and  then  arranging 
these  ideas  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  sequence, 
etc.,  stated  above.  The  relation  between  some  of  the  ideas 
will  be  close,  between  others  more  remote.  This  will  lead  to 
grouping.  Some  one  principle,  then,  which  shall  govern 
this  grouping  should  be  sought  early;  otherwise  the  groups 
will  overlap  and  there  will  be  confusion.  The  principle 
being  established  and  the  groups  defined  and  arranged,  the 
designation  of  each  group  can  be  treated  as  a  new  theme 
and  the  process  repeated.  Thus  the  subject  can  be  pursued 
to  its  farthest  ramifications,  or  as  far  as  desirable. 

Let  us  take  the  subject  of  "Longfellow's  Poems."  The  Wreck 
of  the  Hesperus  and  The .  Village  Blacksmith  were  published 
together  with  a  few  other  poems  in  1841,  and  so  suggest  a  group- 
ing of  early  poems.  Footsteps  of  Angels  and  My  Lost  Youth  will 
go  into  a  group  of  autobiographical  poems.  Paul  Revere''s  Ride 
and  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Btandish  may  be  considered  together 
as  poems  of  New  England  life.  The  Cumberland  and  The  Luck 
of  Edenhall  are  ballads.  The  Divi)ia  Commedia  and  T/ie  Song 
of  the  Silent  Land  are  translations.  Suppose  now  we  attempt  to 
construct  an  outline  on  the  basis  of  these  groups : 

LONGFELLOW'S   POEMS. 

A.  Early  poems. 

1.  The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 

2.  The  Village  Blacksmith,  etc. 

B.  Autobiographical  poems. 

1.  Footsteps  of  Angels. 

But  here  we  discover  that  the  last-named  poem  was  written  in 
the  same  year  as  the  first-named,  and  might  therefore  have  been 


8^  The  whole  Composition. 

placed  in  the  same  group.  Further,  the  next  autobiographical 
poem,  My  Lost  Youth,  contains  pictures  of  New  England  life, 
while  on  the  other  hand  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  con- 
ti'ibutes  to  Longfellow's  biography.  The  Wreck  of  tlie  Hesperus 
might  be  put  with  the  ballads.  The  Luck  of  Edenhall  should  go 
with  the  translations.  We  are  in  a  tangle,  and  the  only  way  out 
is  to  give  up  our  groups  entirely  and  establish  new  ones  on  a 
definite  basis.  Clearly,  if  A  is  to  consist  of  the  early  poems,  B 
must  include  the  poems  of  some  other  definite  period  of  the 
author's  life.  Or  if  group  A  represent  the  poems  touching  upon 
New  England  life,  the  other  groups  must  deal  with  life  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  In  this  latter  case  we  should  soon  discover 
that  many  poems  have  no  local  inspiration.  Thus  we  shall  get 
at  once  two  large  groups,  under  one  of  which  we  should  range  as 
sub-groups  the  poems  dealing  with  specific  localities.  Again,  a 
good  division  could  be  made  into  narrative,  descriptive,  lyric, 
and  dramatic  poems.  A  little  overlapping  must  be  expected,  for 
classifications  are  after  all  more  or  less  arbitrary. 

The  expository  or  argumentative  essay  is  usually  con- 
ceived in  tliree  portions,  to  which  we  give  the  rhetorical 
names  of  Introduction,  Development  (or  Discussion,  or 
Body),  and  Conclusion.  General  considerations  usually 
make  up  the  Introduction,  wliile  summaries,  and  matters 
that  bear  somewhat  indirectly  upon  the  theme, — com- 
ments, inferences,  recommendations, — -eoustitute  the  Con- 
clusion. 

Subjoined  are  the  outlines  of  three  themes  which  may 
serve  as  exami)]es.  The  first  and  second  are  expository, 
the  third  is  somewhat  argumentative. 


TEE  OUTLINE.  33 

THE   VALUE   OF   READING. 

(Adapted  from  a  chapter  in  Koopman's  Mastery  of  Books.) 

Introduction. 

The  mark  of  an  educated  man — power  to  see  things  as  they  are. 
This  power  obtained  by 
Observation. 
Thought. 
Reading. 
Discussion. 

Importance  of  reading. 

A  means  to  clearness  of  mental  vision. 
In  one  sense  a  secondary  source  of  experience. 
Needs  constant  verification  and  correction. 
Otherwise  superior  to  thought  and  observation. 
Extends  both. 

Makes  knowledge  cumulative. 
Faults  to  be  avoided. 

Inattentive  scanning. 
Overcredulity. 

Unjust  discrimination  between  old  and  new  books. 
Further  reasons  for  reading. 
General  culture. 
Information. 
Conversation. 
Production. 
Character-building. 
Conclusion. 

Exhortation  to  read  in  faith  and  with  sincerity  of  purpose. 

LUMBERING   IN   BRITISH   COLUMBIA. 

Introduction. 

Timber  limits. 

Extent. 

Their  protection. 
Fitness  for  trade. 

Variety  of  trees. 

Purposes  for  which  adapted, 


84  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

Body. 

Logging-camp. 

The  officers. 

Their  work. 

The  oxen  and  steam-donkey. 
Transportation. 

By  rail. 

By  water. 
Manufacturing. 

Rough  lumber. 

Dressed  lumber. 

Doors,  sash,  etc. 
Market. 

Local. 

Home. 

Foreign. 
Conclusion. 
Economy. 

Better  machines. 

Careful  oversight. 
Regulation  of  market. 
Need  of  government  inspection. 

CAUSE  AND  CURE  OF  HARD  TIMES. 

Introduction. 

Prevalence  of  hard  times. 

Tendency  to  blame  party  in  power. 

Is  it  a  matter  for  legislation  ? 
Alleged  causes  and  tlieir  soundness. 

1.  Overproduction. 

2.  Cheaper  ])roduction. 

3.  Lack  of  a   protective  tariflF. 

Results  of  McKinley  and  Wilson  bills  contrasted. 
Other  facts. 

4.  The  single  gold  standard. 

An  "honest  dollar"  impossible. 
Functions  of  money. 

1.  IMedium  of  excljange. 

2.  Standard  of  value. 
Gold  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 


THE  OUTLINE,  35 

(^old  as  a  standard  of  value. 
Appreciation. 

1.  Effect  on  debts. 

2.  Effect  on  business. 
The  monetary  outlook. 

1.  The  supply  of  gold. 

2.  The  demand  for  it. 

3.  Silver  discredited. 

4.  Paper  money  unsafe. 

5.  Credit  system  strained. 

Free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  as  a  cure. 
Objections. 

1.  "  Cannot  create  value  by  act  of  law." 

2.  International  agreement  as  a  substitute. 

3.  United  States  not  commercially  strong  enough  to  act 

alone. 
Our  commercial  importance. 
Assistance  by  government  security-holders. 

4.  "Gold  will  all  leave." 
Why  it  would  leave. 
Why  it  would  remain. 

5.  Gold  contracts. 

6.  Fifty-cent  dollars. 

7.  A  "  flood  of  silver." 

8.  What  we  need  is  "  sound  money  and  confidence." 
Conclusion, 

Bimetallists  abused. 
The  most  needed  reform. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Expand  the  following  outline  by  division  and  subdivision  of 
the  topics : 

Football  as  a  College  Sport. 
Introduction. 
Discussion. 

A.  Advantages. 

B.  Disadvantages. 
Conclusion. 

2.  Arrange  the  following  topics  into  a  systematic  outline,  find- 
ing first  those  that  are  suitable  for  designating  the  larger  sections 
of  the  essay,  arranging  them  in  a  logical  order,  and  then  prop- 


36  THE   WHOLE   COMPOSiriOK 

erly  ranging  under  them  the  sub-topics.  Tliis  may  be  facilitated 
by  -RTiting  out  the  topics  on  separate  slips  of  paper.  Entitle  the 
whole  "  Farming  in  California." 

Absence  of  rain  in  haying  and  harvesting  season. 

Type  of  early  agriculturist. 

Atmosphere  of  California  ranch. 

Laziness  and  idleness  prevalent. 

Buildings  inexpensive. 

Much  to  learn  and  unlearn  of  soil  and  climate. 

Characteristics  of  early  agriculture  in  California. 

Preference  for  farming  on  a  large  scale. 

DifEerence  in  seasons — absence  of  rain  in  summer. 

More  abreast  of  the  times. 

Poor  class  of  early  farmers. 

Burning  of  straw. 

Prevents  improvements. 

Mining  and  trading  chief  occupations. 

Agricultural  advantages. 

Unlike  Eastern  farm. 

Little  care  of  machinery. 

Slow  development  of  agriculture — causes. 

Absence  of  garden  and  neglect  of  farmer  to  grow  his  own  vegetables. 

Too  great  haste  to  make  a  fortune. 

Large  land-holdings. 

Indifference  to  barrenness  and  monotony  of  buildings  and  landscape. 

Hajrte  to  actpiire  wealth. 

Inexpensiveness  of  work. 

Less  rusticity. 

Carelessness  and  thriftlessness  of  California  farming. 

Agriculture  a  necessity  of  the  time. 

Element  of  speculation. 

Work  conducted  differently. 

Excludes  desirable  settlers. 

Unsuitableness  of  Eastern  implements. 

Taking  of  unwarrantable  risks. 

Farming  different  from  that  of  Eastern  States. 

Careless  work — sballow  ploughing,  etc. 

Detrimental  to  agriculture. 

Spanish  grants  and  uncertainty  of  tenure. 

Products  more  limited. 

Loss  through  poor  accommodations  for  hired  help. 


THE  OUTLINE.  37 

3.  Read  and  make  an  outline  of  one  or  more  of  the  following 
articles.  In  doing  so  it  is  not  sufficient  simply  to  enumerate  the 
different  topics  that  are  successively  taken  up,  but  wherever  two 
or  more  topics  form  a  group  this  fact  should  be  indicated  by 
proper  divisions  and  subdivisions.  The  articles  have  been  se- 
lected as  lending  themselves  easily  to  this  sort  of  treatment,  but 
a  careful  examination  will  discover  many  of  them  to  be  most  im- 
raethodically  constructed,  giving  strong  testimony  to  the  general 
carelessness  of  writers  in  this  respect.  When  the  magazines  here 
named  are  not  obtainable,  articles  from  any  current  periodicals 
may  be  substituted. 

Yale  University.     Hadley.     Harper,  Apr.  1894. 

The  Jews  of  New  York.     Riis.     Rev.  of  Rev.,  Jan.  1896. 

The  Future  of  War.     Lee.     Century,  July  1895. 

Equality  as  the  Basis  of  Good  Society.  Howells.  Century,  Nov. 
1895. 

Should  Golf  be  Encouraged  at  Public  Schools  ?  Blackwood,  Mar. 
1895. 

Child-life  and  the  Kindergarten.     Vrooman.     Arena,  July  1895. 

Manual  Training  for  Women.     Vrooman.     Arena,  Oct.  1895. 

Architecture — A  Profession  or  an  Art  ?  Jackson.  Nineteenth 
Cent.,  Mar.  1893. 

The  Political  Situation.     Godkin.     Forum,  May  1896. 

What  a  Daily  Newspaper  might  be  Made.  Payne.  Forum,  Nov. 
1893. 

The  Transformation  of  New  England.    Hyde.     Forum,  Mar.  1893. 

The  Right  and  Expediency  of  Woman's  Suffrage.  Hoar.  Cen- 
tury, Aug.  1894. 

The  Peasant  Life  of  South  Russia.     Blackwood,  Dec.  1895. 

Salmon-fiies.     Maxwell.     Blackwood,  Feb.  1894. 

The  Irish  in  American  Life.     Merwin.     Atl.  Mo.,  Mar.  1896. 

The  Summer  Problem.     Grant.     Scribuer,  July  1895. 

The  Expenditure  of  Rich  Men.     Godkin.     Scribner.  Oct.  1896. 

The  Study  of  American  Liquor  Laws.     Eliot.   Atl.  Mo.,  Feb.  1897. 

Our  National  Capital.     Ralph.     Harper,  Apr.  1895. 

The  Living  Greek.     Manatt.     Rev.  of  Rev.,  Apr.  1895. 

Self-help  among  American  College  Girls.  Banks.  Nineteenth 
Cent.,  Mar.  1896. 

The  Canals  of  Mars.     Lowell.     Atl.  Mo.,  July  1895. 


i  /I  c:  Q1  n 


38  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States.  Parkman.  No.  Amer. 
Rev.,  Jan.  1875. 

How  the  Banana  is  Grown.     Lyman.     Cosmopolitan,  Feb.  1898. 

4.  Make  outlines  of  some  of  the  subjects  given  under  2. 

Note.— Before  beginning  to  write  the  student  should  familiarize  himself  with 
the  mechanical  details  involved  in  the  correct  preparation  of  a  manuscript, 
whether  for  the  press  or  for  the  class-room.  Full  directions  will  be  found  in 
Part  V.    Especially  at  this  stage  let  §§  61-67  be  studied. 

IV.     THE  COMPOSITION. 

11.  The  Title. — The  title  should  be  determined  at  the 
outset.  The  unity  of  a  composition  depends  on  the  direct- 
ness with  which  every  2:)ortion  bears  upon  a  central  theme. 
With  the  title  determined  there  is  far  less  danger  of  ram- 
bling from  the  central  theme.  And  the  theme  itself  will 
become  more  sharply  defined  in  the  mind  by  the  very  act 
of  embodying  it  in  a  compact  phrase.  Besides,  it  is,  in  gen- 
eral, much  easier  to  make  an  essay  fit  a  title  than  to  make 
a  title  fit  an  essay.  If  the  essay  be  written  first  it  may 
well  be  that  no  title  can  be  found  which  will  not  be  either 
too  broad  or  too  narrow,  whereas  if  the  title  be  selected  first 
matter  can  be  included  or  excluded  at  will,  to  correspond 
witli  the  limits  thus  defined  beforehand.  When  one  reads 
a  composition  entitled  "Feline  Cunning,"  and  discovers  it 
to  be  an  account  of  the  tricks  of  the  writer's  pet  cat,  he 
realizes  that  the  title  must  have  been  devised  as  an  after- 
thought, for  any  one  who  was  deliberately  writing  on  the 
theme  of  feline  cunning  would  hardly  confine  himself  to  a 
description  of  a  single  cat. 

1.  The  title  should  be  clear.  Ellipticalness,  indefinite- 
ness,  ambiguity,  in  a  mere  phrase — and  a  title  is  not  often 
more  than  a  phrase — are  peculiarly  difl&cult  to  avoid. 
Strangeness  may  be  pardoned  if  it  inhere  in  the  subject. 
But  strangeness  should  never  go  to  the  extreme  of  un- 
couthness.     And  affected  strangeness  for  novelty's  sake  or 


TEE  TITLE.  39 

for  advertisement's  sake,   appealing   to  an  idle  curiosity, 
has  no  excuse. 

2.  In  form  the  title  must  effect  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  claims  of  brevity  on  the  one  hand  and  exact- 
ness on  the  other.  "The  briefer  the  title  the  broader  the 
tlieme,"  we  had  occasion  to  remark  several  pages  back. 
Conversely  and  contrarily,  the  narrower  the  theme  the 
longer  must  be  the  title.  But  there  is  a  limit.  The  title 
cannot  undertake  to  give  all  the  limitations  of  a  subject; 
it  is  sufficient  that  the  most  important  only  be  indi- 
cated. Brevity  of  form  is  secured  by  the  reduction  of 
clauses  to  phrases  and  phrases  to  words.  Verbs  are  freely 
omitted. 

3.  The  title  may  indicate  the  character  and  even  the 
tone  of  a  composition.  An  interrogative  title,  for  example, 
promises  argument.  There  is  humor  in  ''The  Deacon's 
Masterpiece,"  pathos  in  "Ships  that  Pass  in  the  Night," 
tragedy  in  "  On  the  Face  of  the  "Waters."  It  is  perhaps 
in  this  subtle  suggestiveness  more  than  in  any  exactness  of 
significance  that  the  felicity  of  a  title  lies.  An  ingenious 
method  of  suggesting  much  in  a  few  words  is  to  use  a  frag- 
ment of  an  apt  and  familiar  quotation.  Examples  are  : 
"Slings  and  Arrows,"  "'Who  Laughs  Last,"  "Through  a 
Glass  Darkly,"  "Which  To-day  Is."  The  last  is  daring, 
but  it  conveys  a  world  of  meaning  to  one  who  is  familiar 
with  the  passage  in  Matthew,  "Wherefore,  if  God  so 
clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  to-day  is,  and  to-mor- 
row is  cast  into  the  oven,  shall  He  not  much  more  clothe 
you,  0  ye  of  little  faith  ?  " 

The  rules  governing  the  selection  of  a  title  can  hardly  be  held 
to  apply  to  works  of  fiction,  nor  do  we  expect  to  find  them  ob- 
served in  the  preparation  of  newspaper  headlines.  In  the  case 
of  the  latter  some  inaccuracies  may  be  pardoned,  since  they  are 
due  to  unavoidable  haste;  often,  however,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 


40  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

they  are  due  more  to  a  desire  for  attractiveness,  for  suspiciously 
often  do  we  get  ideas  from  headlines  that  are  not  warranted  by 
the  despatches.  In  the  case  of  fiction  the  desire  for  attractive- 
ness may  be  honestly  pleaded.  The  aim  of  such  work  is  chiefly 
to  please,  and  the  reader  does  not  expect  to  gather  accurate  in- 
formation from  the  title.  Thus  one  never  thinks  of  objecting  to 
such  titles  as  "  The  Seats  of  the  Mighty,"  "Beside  the  Bonnie 
Brier  Bush,"  "  The  Puppet-booth,"  "  Called  Back,"  "  Two  on  a 
Tower,"  "Beyond  the  Palaeocrystic  Sea."  Besides,  the  author, 
who  naturally  hopes  that  his  work  will  live,  desires  something 
new  and  distinctive  in  the  way  of  a  name  and  is  often  compelled 
to  seek  far  to  find  it.  But  while  no  high  degree  of  accuracy  or 
sobriety  may  here  be  insisted  upon,  the  principle  remains  that 
the  title  should  at  least  be  fairly  appropriate.  It  should  not 
abuse  the  reader's  faith  by  raising  expectations  that  the  work 
will  not  justify.  And  this  is  not  solely  a  matter  of  conscience, 
it  is  a  matter  of  policy.  A  work  that  does  not  fulfil  the  promise 
of  its  title  can  only  redound  to  the  author's  harm  in  the  end. 

As  to  present-day  usage  in  descriptive,  expository,  and  argu- 
mentative composition  an  examination  of  titles  in  such  maga- 
zines as  The  Forum  and  TJie  North  American  Revieiv  shows 
them  to  consist  most  frequently  of  two  phrases,  not  often  of 
more  than  three.  Here  is  a  long  book-title  of  three  phrases: 
"The  Natural  History  of  the  Marketable  Marine  Fishes  of  the 
British  Island^."  Five  and  six  phrases  are  occasionally  found. 
Examine  the  titles  given  under  10,  exercise  3. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Criticise  the  following  titles: 

The  Light  that  Failed. 

Early  Education. 

Nicholas  Nickleby. 

The  Gods,  Some  Mortals,  and  Lord  Wickenham. 

Unto  this  Last. 

The  Art  of  Writing. 

Obstruction  of  Light. 

Shot  at  tlie  Guardhouse. 

Dollars  and  Darwinism. 

Woking  Helen  Mornings. 


THE  INTRODUCTION.  41 

The  Wept  of  the  Wisli-ton-Wish. 

The  History  of  the  Study  of  the  Special  Psychology  of  Childhood. 
The  Deformed  Transformed. 
Dog  Ingenuity. 

Alfred  Tennyson's  Idea  of  the  Woman  Question  as  Shown  in  "  The 
Princess." 
Preparedness  for  Naval  War. 
Scientific  Prose  Writing. 

2.  Reduce  the  following  to  briefer  form,  preserving  all  the 
ideas: 

Young  People  among  Us  Who  are  Guilty  of  Offences. 

The  Story  of  Civilizations  of  the  East  that  have  Perished. 

How  Our  Native  Fruits  have  been  Evolved. 

Private  Life  among  the  Greeks. 

The  Evils  of  Our  Consular  Service  that  Need  Remedying. 

A  Speedy  Reform  in  Our  Systems  of  Finance  and  Currency  is 
Imperative. 

A  Book  of  Elementary  Instruction  in  Greek. 

The  Mutual  Relations  Existing  between  the  State  and  the  Indi- 
vidual. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Emendation  of  Texts  in  Latin. 

Societies  for  the  Improvement  of  Villages. 

Kind  of  Self-development  Possible  through  a  Study  of  Painting, 
Sculpture,  and  Music. 

3.  A  writer  offered  the  following  sis  titles  for  the  same  story. 
Discuss  their  respective  merits  simply  as  titles,  without  reference 
to  the  particular  story  for  which  they  were  intended. 

Changing  His  Major  Study. 
An  Offence  against  Discipline. 
An  Experience  of  Sophomores, 
The  Madness  of  Professor  Grimm. 
In  Their  Sophomore  Years. 
The  Decision  of  a  Higher  Court. 

12.  The  Introduction. — 1.  The  mtroduction  should,  in 
general,  embody  a  full  and  clear  statement  of  the  theme. 
The  title,  as  we  have  seen,  usually  indicates  no  more  than 
the  general    subject.     It  could  not  do  more  without  being 


4:2  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

unduly  amplified.  The  introduction  affords  an  opportunity 
for  making  the  necessary  limitations  and  explanations. 
This  need  not  be  done  formally  or  methodically,  unless  the 
discussion  is  to  he  rigorously  exact  throughout.  It  is  sim- 
ply desirable  that  the  reader  be  given  to  understand  as 
early  as  possible  just  what  the  writer  proposes  to  write 
about.  A  mutual  understanding  will  be  of  advantage  to 
both. 

2.  The  manner  of  treatment  should  likewise  be  indi- 
cated. This  involves  the  writer's  equipment  and  point  of 
view.  AVho  is  he  ?  What  reason  has  he  for  writing  ? 
What  claim  has  he  upon  the  reader's  attention  ?  Here, 
again,  he  need  not  state  these  things  explicitly;  he  may  not 
mention  himself  in  either  the  third  or  the  first  person.  But 
he  can  manage  to  convey  with  what  degree  of  authority  he 
writes,  upon  what  experience  or  knowledge  his  statements 
are  founded,  what  convictions  he  has,  what  conclusions  he 
will  come  to,  what  object  he  has  in  view.  There  are  few 
things  more  discouraging  to  a  reader  than  to  be  wilfully  or 
negligently  left  in  the  dark  on  all  of  these  important 
points. 

3.  The  length  of  the  introduction,  the  proportion  whicli 
it  shall  bear  to  the  whole  composition,  must  be  considered. 
It  may  comprise  one  paragraph  or  half  a  dozen ;  in  the  case 
of  a  book  it  may  occupy  a  chapter  and  is  sometimes  called 
a  prologue.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given.  A  long  com- 
position may  have  a  very  brief  introduction,  but  a  short 
composition  should  not  have  a  long  introduction.  When 
the  introduction  approaches  one  third  of  the  length  of  the 
entire  composition  it  is  manifestly  becoming  too  long. 
Lowell's  essay  on  Thoreau  betrays  this  disproportion.  The 
essay  is  twenty  pages  in  length  and  the  name  of  Thoreau 
does  not  appear  until  the  eighth  page. 

4.  How  to  begin  is  one  of  the  most  puzzling  questions 


THE  INTRODUCTION.  43 

that  confront  tlie  novice  in  composition.  Nor  does  it  ever 
wholly  lose  its  puzzling  character.  The  most  practised 
writer  may  stumble  here,  possibly  because  he  is  conscious 
that  here  most  of  all  will  awkwardness  be  noticed.  Let  us 
examine  some  of  the  sources  of  error. 

a.  Where  are  the  first  words  to  come  from  ?  What  is 
to  suggest  them  ?  They  grow  out  of  nothing  already 
expressed;  and  yet  they  must  be  made  to  link  on  to  some- 
thing that  will  be  expressed.  Here  is  a  double  source  of 
danger:  the  introduction  may  be  too  abrupt,  and  it  may 
not  lead  easily  and  naturally  up  to  the  main  discussion. 
Theoretically  the  ideal  composition  runs  in  a  sort  of  circle. 
The  writer  has  it  all  in  mind ;  he  knows  what  he  is  going 
to  say  at  the  end,  and  the  end  helps  to  suggest  the  begin- 
ning. Under  any  circumstances  the  actual  beginning  is 
suggested  by  something  in  the  writer's  thought.  That 
something  should  not  be  wholly  obscure  to  the  reader  or 
the  beginning  will  be  obscure.  In  short,  the  writer  must 
beware  of  taking  too  much  of  his  own  thought  for  granted. 
He  should  not  be  so  careless  as  to  write  ' '  Here "  in  refer- 
ence to  the  place  of  his  own  abode,  when  the  reader  does 
not  know  but  that  it  is  to  be  interpreted  "  Here  on  earth." 
He  should  not  write  "Among  us"  before  any  antecedent 
for  the  pronoun  has  been  supplied,  but  "Among  us  stu- 
dents of  Harvard  College,"  or  "Among  us  citizens  of  the 
United  States,"  as  the  case  may  be.  And  so  with  all  ref- 
erences to  time  and  place,  unless  the  article  is  so  purely 
local  and  occasional  in  its  nature  (as  when  intended  for  a 
newspaper)  that  the  absence  of  specified  dates  and  places 
can  cause  no  obscurity. 

h.  Akin  to  the  above  error  is  the  error  of  taking  the  title 
of  the  piece  for  granted.  Introductory  sentences  should 
be  complete  in  meaning  independently  of  the  title — a  title 
is  not  constructively  a  portion  of  the  essay.     If  any  refer- 


44  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

ence  to  the  idea  embodied  in  it  is  to  be  made  at  the  outset 
the  words  shouhl  be  repeated  in  full,  not  represented  by  a 
pronoun.  The  error  is  most  commonly  found,  perhaps, 
where  the  title  has  the  form  of  a  question.     Thus : 

WHAT   SHALL   WE   DO   WITH   OUR   PAUPERS  ? 

This  is  a  question  that  is  daily  becoming  more  urgent  .  .  . 

In  repeating  this  particular  title  we  should  have  to  pro- 
ceed with  care,  for  the  title  is  in  itself  a  complete  sentence 
and  cannot  be  readily  incorporated  in  another  sentence. 
We  could  hardly  tolerate  the  awkwardness  of  the  following : 
**  What  shall  we  do  with  our  paupers  ?  is  a  question  that 
is  becoming  daily  more  urgent."  The  question  might  be 
cast  in  the  indirect  form:  compare  the  iirst  sentence  of 
the  paragraph  second  preceding.  Or  the  question  might  be 
put  last  in  the  sentence  :  "  Daily  more  and  more  urgent  be- 
comes the  question.  What  shall  we  do  with  our  paupers  ?  " 
Or  we  may  simply  repeat  the  title,  allowing  it  to  stand  as  a 
separate  sentence,  and  then  refer  to  it  as  freely  as  we  please: 
*'  What  shall  we  do  with  our  paupers  ?  The  question  is  be- 
coming daily  more  urgent.  ..."  The  free  repetition  of 
the  title,  in  one  form  or  another,  may  be  seen  in  some  of 
the  introductions  given  below.  The  point  of  the  wliole 
matter  is  that  the  introduction  should  be  intelligible  apart 
from  the  title.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  reader 
begins  to  read  a  piece  without  glancing  at  the  title. 

c.  Beginning  too  far  away  from  the  subject  is  a  common 
error.  When  Thomas  Prince  undertook  to  write  a  history 
of  Xew  England  he  thought  it  necessary  to  begin  with 
Adam.  As  a  consequence  his  real  history  of  New  England 
never  progressed  very  far.  Book  I  of  Irving's  ''Knicker- 
bocker History  "  is  a  burlesque  upon  these  long-winded, 
pedantic  introductions,  but  even  as  a  burlesque  it  is  tedious 
reading.     It  is  not  always  their  tediousness,  however,  that 


THE  iNTRODUCTiON.  45 

constitutes  the  objection  to  such  beginnings— it  is  the  vex- 
ation that  is  caused  the  reader  when  he  finds  that  he  has 
fixed  his  attention  upon  the  wrong  point.  This  may  be 
illustrated  in  a  small  way  by  a  simple  narrative  which 
begins  thus: 

Last  Sunday  afternoon,  finding  myself  with  a  leisure  hour  on 
my  hands,  I  started  out  for  a  walk.  I  met  an  elderly  gentleman  at 
the  corner  of  Hyde  and  Jackson  streets  who  appeared  be- 
wildered, etc. 

The  writer  of  this  was  afflicted  somewhat  as  Thomas  Prince 
was.  The  historian  could  see  no  beginning  of  history  this 
side  of  the  Creation :  our  writer  could  see  no  starting-point 
for  the  relation  of  his  incident  but  the  setting  out  on  the 
walk  during  which  the  incident  befell.  The  walk  itself  was 
rightly  included,  but  not  the  starting  out.  His  first  words 
should  have  run  somewhat  thus : 

In  the  course  of  a  leisure  hour's  walk  last  Sunday  afternoon  I 
met,  at  the  corner  of  Hyde  and  Jackson  streets,  an  elderly  gentle- 
man .  .  . 

It  almost  always  happens  in  narrative  introductions  of  this 
kind  that  the  writer  fails  to  make  the  transition  to  his  ob- 
jective point  smoothly.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case 
he  goes  by  leaps  and  jerks,  dragging  the  reader  most  re- 
luctantly after  him. 

5.  Successful  beginnings  are  of  course  aimost  as  numer- 
ous as  the  writers  who  employ  them,  and  as  varied  as  the 
compositions.  Still  they  may  be  classified  under  a  few 
general  heads. 

a.  An  indirect  method  of  beginning  is  somewhat  affected, 
and  often  happily,  by  public  speakers  and  by  writers  of 
popular  literature.  A  well-told  anecdote  will  put  an  audi- 
ence in  good  humor  and  few  will  stop  to  criticise  even  if  it 
is  not  particularly  apposite.  An  apt  quotation  or  maxim 
may  arouse  interest  at  the  start.     See  Matthew  Arnold's 


46  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

essays  on  "Equality,"  "Falkland,"  and  others.  A  figure 
of  speech  is  sometimes  used.  AVebster's  ''  Reply  to  Hayne  " 
will  readily  occur  as  an  example.  General  statements  and 
observations,  broader  than  the  particular  theme,  often  con- 
stitute an  easy  introduction. 

h.  On  the  other  hand,  a  very  direct  or  even  abrupt 
beginning  carries  witli  it  certain  advantages.  Narration 
is  more  interesting  than  description,  and  if  one  is  writing 
a  story  it  is  often  well  to  begin  with  tlie  action  and  let  the 
necessary  explanations  follow,  a  few  at  a  time.  Thus  the 
stimulated  interest  of  a  languid  reader  may  carry  him  over 
what  would  otherwise  prove  an  insurmountable  barrier. 
One  may  even  begin  with  a  pronoun,  with  the  intention 
of  supplying  the  antecedent  later:  ''It  happened  in  the 
summer  of  1876."  Or,  "She  paused  for  a  moment  on 
the  doorstep  and  gazed  down  the  street  to  the  westward, 
shading  her  eyes  with  her  gloved  hand."  (It  is  wortli 
while  noting  how  much  information  is  suggested  in  this 
last  sentence  in  addition  to  what  is  actually  told.)  Com- 
pare also  the  beginning  of  the  descriptive  sketcli  "  Brotlier 
Naylor,"  under  13,  1.  A  scrap  of  conversation  may  be 
employed,  after  the  dramatic  method.  The  present  writer 
recalls  vividly  yet  a  story  that  thrilled  him  in  youth  with 
its  beginning:  "A  fight  !  a  fight  !"  It  was  a  very  repu- 
table story,  too,  in  spite  of  its  savage  beginning  and  its 
suspiciously  alluring  title  of  "Indian  Pete."  The  felici- 
tous use  of  an  abrupt  beginning  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
following  : 

There  were  ten  of  us  on  burros,  and  four  pack  animals. 

In  this  very  ridiculous  procession  we  had  been  riding  since 
early  morning,  over  the  wild  mountain  trails,  with  only  the 
strange  calls  of  the  guide — "  Hi,  there,  Julia  !  Go  'long.  Coyote! "' 
— to  interrupt  our  delight  in  the  marvellous  savageness  of  the 
scenery. 


THE  INTRODUCTION.  47 

It  had  been  like  a  panorama  :  the  sunrise  in  the  canyon,  on 
the  green  ferns  and  red  columbines  and  sparkling  stream.     Etc. 

Notice  how  skilfully  Dumas,  iu  the  first  chapter  of  his 
"Three  Musketeers,"  twice  arouses  interest  in  a  lively 
quarrel  only  to  break  off  each  time  aud  insert  the  necessary 
descriptive  matter  : 

On  the  first  Monday  of  the  month  of  April,  1635,  the  small 
town  of  Meung,  birthplace  of  the  author  of  the  "Romance  of 
ihe  Rose,"  appeared  to  be  in  as  complete  a  state  of  revolution  as 
if  the  Huguenots  had  come  to  make  a  second  siege  of  La  Rochelle. 
Many  of  the  townsmen,  seeing  the  women  flying  along  the  chief 
street  and  leaving  the  children  squalling  at  their  thresholds, 
hastened  to  don  their  armor,  and,  fortifying  their  somewhat 
doubtful  courage  with  a  musket  or  partizan,  they  proceeded 
toward  the  hostelry  of  the  Jolly  Miller,  in  front  of  which  a  noisy 
and  accumulating  crowd  was  buzzing  with  intense  curiosity. 

At  that  time  alarms  were  frequent,  and  few  days  passed  with- 
out some  town  or  other  registering  in  its  archives  an  event  of 
this  description.  There  were  the  nobles,  who  made  war  on  each 
other  ;  there  was  the  king,  who  made  war  on  the  cardinal ;  there 
was  the  Spaniard,  who  made  war  on  the  king.  Then  besides 
these  conflicts,  secret  or  open,  there  were,  moreover,  robbers, 
beggars,  Huguenots,  wolves,  and  lackeys,  who  make  war  on  the 
world.  The  townsmen  always  armed  themselves  against  the 
robbers,  the  wolves,  and  the  lackeys;  frequently  against  the 
nobles  and  the  Huguenots;  sometimes  against  the  king;  but  never 
against  the  cardinal  or  the  Spaniard.  From  this  custom,  there- 
fore, it  arose  that  on  the  aforesaid  first  Monday  in  the  month  of 
April,  1625,  the  townspeople,  hearing  a  noise,  and  seeing  neither 
the  yellow  and  red  flag,  nor  the  livery  of  the  Duke  of  Richelieu, 
rushed  toward  the  village  inn,  the  Jolly  Miller.  Having  reached 
it,  every  one  could  see  and  understand  the  cause  of  this  alarm. 
A  young  man 

But  let  us  trace  his  portrait  with  one  stroke  of  the  pen. 
Fancy  to  yourself  Don  Quixote  at  eighteen.  .  .  . 

c.  The  more  formal  methods  of  introduction,  which  set 
forth  in  varying  degrees  of  completeness  the  theme,  the 


4S  The  whole  composition 

point  of  view,  and  the  manner  and  extent  of  treatment, 
belong  to  expository  and  argumentative  work.  The  follow- 
ing may  be  taken  as  examples.  The  first  personal  pronoun 
is  used  rather  freely  in  these  introductions,  which  may  be 
taken  as  a  sign  in  itself  that  the  writer  speaks  with  the 
assurance  of  authority.  If  he  does  not  so  speak  the  use  of 
it  were  best  avoided,  though  an  occasional  "I  think"  or 
"I  hold"  in  argument  may  be  evidence  that  the  writer 
would  deprecate  the  charge  of  dogmatism.  It  often  re- 
quires much  rhetorical  skill  to  avoid  tliis  pronoun,  and 
perhaps  it  is  the  sense  of  awkwardness  and  artificiality 
which  the  avoidance  of  it  imposes  that  has  led  to  the 
franker  usage  of  late  years. 

The  Moral  Standard. 

In  the  present  paper  I  purpose  to  discuss  briefly  the  nature  of 
the  moral  standard,  strictly  so  called.  The  simplest  way  of  ap- 
proaching the  subject  will  perhaps  be  to  pass  in  rapid  review  the 
other  principal  criteria  of  conduct  by  contrast  with  which  the 
essential  character  of  the  moral  criterion  itself  will  be  brought 
into  conspicuous  relief.  —  W.  H.  Hudson  :  Popular  /Science 
Mo7ithly,  Nov.  1896. 

Democratic  Tendencies. 

I  have  thouglit  it  necessary,  at  the  risk  of  being  tedious,  to 
preface  what  I  am  about  to  say  concerning  democracy  by  a  brief 
account  of  the  earlier  efforts  to  establisli  it.  I  do  this  to  avoid 
the  notion,  which  is  only  too  prevalent,  that  we  are  in  this  age 
attempting  something  new  in  the  art  of  government,  when  the 
fact  is  that  we  are  continuing  a  very  old  experiment  under 
widely  changed  conditions.  Human  nature  remains  the  constant 
element  in  our  problem,  but  it  is  now  surrounded  with  a  great 
variety  of  novel  agencies,  to  which  we  are  slowly  and  painfully 
trying  to  adapt  ourselves, — E.  L.  Gqdkin  :  Atlantic  MontJily, 
Feb.  1897. 


THE  INTRODUCTION.  4:9 

Nature-study  and  Moral  Culture. 

In  making  a  plea  for  nature-study  as  a  means  of  moi-al  culture 
I  do  not  wish  to  make  an  over-statement,  nor  to  claim  for  such 
study  any  occult  or  exclusive  power.  It  is  not  for  us  to  say,  so 
much  nature  in  the  schools,  so  much  virtue  in  the  scholars.  The 
character  of  the  teacher  is  a  factor  which  must  always  be  counted 
in.  But  the  best  teacher  is  the  one  that  comes  nearest  to  nature, 
the  one  who  is  most  effective  in  developing  individual  wisdom. 
To  seek  knowledge  is  better  than  to  have  knowledge. — D.  S.  Jor- 
dan :  Science,  August  1896. 

My  Garden  Acquaintance. 
.  .  .  For  many  years  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  noting  down 
some  of  the  leading  events  of  my  embowered  solitude,  such  as 
the  coming  of  certain  birds  and  the  like — a  kind  of  memoires  pour 
servir,  after  the  fashion  of  White  [of  Selborne],  rather  than  prop- 
erly digested  natural  history.  I  thought  it  not  impossible  that  a 
few  simple  stories  of  my  winged  acquaintances  might  be  found 
entertaining  by  persons  of  kindred  taste. — Lowell. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay. 

He  who  undertakes  to  publish  the  memoirs  of  a  distinguished 
man  may  find  a  ready  apology  in  the  custom  of  the  age.  If  we 
measure  the  effective  demand  for  biography  by  the  supply,  the 
person  commemorated  need  possess  but  a  very  moderate  reputa- 
tion, and  have  played  no  exceptional  part,  in  order  to  carry  the 
reader  through  many  hundred  pages  of  anecdote,  dissertation, 
and  correspondence.  To  judge  from  the  advertisements  of  our 
circulating  libraries,  the  public  curiosity  is  keen  with  regard  to 
some  who  did  nothing  worthy  of  special  note,  and  others  who 
acted  so  continuously  in  the  face  of  the  world  that,  when  their 
course  was  run,  there  was  little  left  for  the  world  to  learn  about 
them.  It  may,  therefore,  be  taken  for  granted  that  a  desire  exists 
to  hear  something  authentic  about  the  life  of  a  man  who  has  pro- 
duced works  which  are  universally  known,  but  which  bear  little 
or  no  indication  of  the  private  history  and  the  personal  qualities 
of  the  author. — G.  O.  Trevelyan. 

d.  Even   in   composition  of   this   kind  a  more  abrupt 


50  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

method,  discarding  all  explanations,  is  often  employed. 
Macaulay's  brusque  manner  is  well  known.  Take  this  from 
his  essay  on  John  Bunyan: 

John  Bunyan,  tlie  most  popular  religious  writer  in  the  English 
language,  was  born  at  ELstow,  about  a  mile  from  Bedford,  in  the 
year  1628. 

The  following  is  from  a  description  of  a  system  of  water- 
works as  published  in  a  local  newspaper: 

The  supply  of  water  is  taken  from  artesian  wells.  One  was 
bored  a  year  ago  to  the  depth  of  350  feet,  etc. 

Horace's  advice  long  ago  was  to  hasten  into  the  mid-theme 
(m  medias  res),  but  it  is  sometimes  possible  even  to  begin 
there.  Many  a  student  of  composition  has  written,  at  the 
cost  of  much  time  and  labor,  an  elaborate  introduction, 
only  to  find  that  the  teacher  draws  his  pencil  through 
it  at  the  last.  It  is  well  to  know  that  sometimes  the  best 
solution  of  the  difficulty  is  simply  to  take  a  bold  plunge,  to 
begin  without  seeking  to  make  a  beginning. 

e.  In  general,  the  a'hrupt  method  is  limited  to  narration. 
Description  is  by  nature  leisurely.  Abruj)tues3  at  the  out- 
set of  an  exposition  would  be  misleading.  The  direct 
method  of  stating  the  theme  or  the  purpose  cannot  be 
called  abrupt.  An  exposition  introduced  by  an  anecdote 
might  seem  to  begin  abruptly,  but  the  abruptness  would 
belong  only  to  the  anecdote,  whicli,  taken  as  a  whole, 
would  constitute  a  very  indirect  approacli  to  the  theme. 
Other  indirect  expository  nietbods  are  mentioned  above 
(5,  a). 

EXERCISES. 

1.   Criticise  the  following  introductions: 

1.  At  the  last  election  an  amendment  which  would  give  the 
sufiFrage  to  women  was  voted  upon  and  lost.  Nevertheless  the 
proposed  change  is  a  just  one. 


THE  INTRODUCTTON.  51 

2.  With  a  party  from  my  home  this  summer  I  visited  tliat 
wonderful  park  the  Yoseraite  Valley.  The  last  moruing,  as  we 
neared  the  valley,  we  became  more  and  more  anxious  to  get  there, 
expecting,  of  course,  to  see  something  very  beautiful.  From  the 
summit  before  descending  into  the  valley  we  saw  for  the  first  time 
Bridal  Veil  Falls.     How  fitly  was  it  named  ! 

3.  One  bright  July  morning  the  little  harbor  of  Avalon,  Santa 
Catalina  Island,  was  all  astir.  People  carrying  baskets  and 
wraps  came  flashing  from  tents  and  hotels  to  one  common  spot — 
the  wharf,  where  several  yachts  and  small  steam-launches  were 
bobbing  about,  apparently  very  impatient  to  be  off  for  a  day  of 
pleasure.  Soon  we  were  steaming  away,  while  the  strains  of 
"Adieu,  adieu,  kind  friends,  adieu,"  came  sweetly  to  us  from 
the  shore. 

4.  In  a  quarter  of  a  century  there  have  been  as  many  changes 
for  the  crew  as  for  the  passengers. 

5.  A  Human  Interrogation-point. 

There  can  be  nothing  more  disagreeable  than  the  coming  in 
contact  with  one  of  these.  I  have  in  mind  a  person  to  whom  this 
cognomen  would  be  well  adapted. 

2.  Juelge  so  far  as  possible  from  the  following  intro- 
ductory fragments  the  theme  and  nature  of  the  compositions 
to  follow  them : 

1.  It  always  snows  on  Thanksgiving  Day  in  New  York  City. 

2.  Salt  is  considered  an  indispensable  article  in  the  culinary 
department  of  every  modern  household.  But  why  should  it  be  so  ? 
Should  salt  be  taken  into  the  human  system  ? 

3.  I  was  a  witness  in  1887  of  a  combat  between  a  halictus  bee 
and  its  sphcecode  parasite,  a  "  cuckoo  bee,"  which  took  place  in 
the  open  air  outside  of  the  nest. 

4.  What  a  wonderful  little  ci'eatnre  is  the  ant ! 

5.  There  are  encouraging  signs  that  the  somewhat  contemptuous 
toleration  which  for  many  years  has  been  the  prevailing  attitude 
toward  the  systematic  study  of  rhetoric  is  near  its  end. 

6.  The  months  go  round  and  anniversaries  return  ;  on  the  ninth 
of  June  George  Sand  wull  have  been  dead  just  one  year. 


52  THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

7.  The  average  man  lias  no  idea  of  the  real  meaning  of  the 
common  adjective  phrase  "deaf  and  dumb." 

8.  "Men  scarcely  know  how  beautiful  fire  is,"  says  Shelley; 
and  I  am  apt  to  think  there  are  a  good  many  other  things  con- 
cerning which  their  knowledge  might  be  hirgely  increased  without 
becoming  burdensome. 

9.  Bibbs's  was  a  gloomy  little  heaven  up  one  flight,  and  Bibbs 
a  bald  and  cranky  little  god  of  fiddles,  with  whiskers  half  as  long 
as  himself  and  white  as  snow. 

10.  I  dare  say  that  I  had  already  read  my  uncle's  letter  a 
hundred  times,  and  I  am  sure  that  I  knew  it  by  heart ;  none  the 
less  I  took  it  out  of  my  pocket  and,  sitting  on  the  side  of  the 
lugger,  I  went  over  it  again  with  as  much  attention  as  if  it  were 
for  the  first  time. 

3.  Write  extempore  introductions  for  any  subject  selected 
from  the  list  of  subjects  for  themes  under  2.  If  the  work 
is  done  in  the  class-room  the  introductions  may  be  read, 
compared,  and  criticised. 

13.  The  Body. — Little  remains  to  be  said  about  the  body 
of  the  composition  as  a  whole.  The  important  matters 
have  been  provided  for  in  the  gathering  and  arranging  of 
material.  The  writer  has  simply  to  develop  in  order  the 
topics  of  his  outline,  adding  illustrations  wherever  they 
seem  to  be  demanded.  Methods  of  development  will  be 
discussed  in  detail  in  tlie  chapter  on  paragra])hs.  We  need 
pause  here  only  to  supplement  what  has  been  said  about  the 
arrangement  of  the  topics,  with  a  consideration  of  such 
matters  as  must  be  attended  to  in  the  actual  writing. 

1.  Unity  has  been  insisted  upon.  This  unity  must  be 
preserved  by  a  constant  centralization  of  ideas.  No  matter 
how  far  one  may  be  led  in  the  development  of  certain 
aspects  of  his  subject,  the  subject  itself  should  never  be  for- 
gotten. It  is  the  central  point,  and  it  sliould  be  returned 
to  again  and  again  in  one  form  or  other,  often  in  the  very 
words  of  the  title. 


THE  BODY.  53 

Carlyle,  iu  his  lecture  on  '•  The  Hero  as  Man  of  Letters," 
treats  of  Johnson,  Rousseau,  and  Burns.  But  this  lecture 
is  only  one  of  a  series,  the  general  subject  of  which  is 
"  Heroes  and  Hero-worship."  Accordiugh',  while  Johnson, 
Rousseau,  and  Burns  are  oftenest  spoken  of  as  Men  of 
Letters,  Great  Men,  Great  Souls,  Gifted  Souls,  Lions,  and 
the  like,  they  are  also  spoken  of  with  almost  regular  recur- 
rence as  Literary  Heroes.  And  their  quality  of  Sincerity, 
Truth,  Splendor,  AVorth,  Greatness,  Manhood,  appears  also 
with  a  certain  regularity  as  Heroism. 

Note,  in  the  following  descriptive  sketch,  how  skilfully 
the  subject  is  kept  in  view  from  first  to  last: 

Brother  Naylor. 

He  rode  a  mule,  gaunt,  heavy-eyed,  leaden-footed — a  veritable 
caricature  of  a  mule,  whose  sharp  jirotruding  joints  gave  him  the 
appearance  of  a  grotesque  hat-rack.  So  long-legged  was  the  rider 
that  he  was  forced  to  turn  his  toes  up  to  prevent  their  touching 
the  ground.  His  feet  dangled  with  every  motion  of  the  mule,  for 
the  saddle  was  without  stirrups.  Those  feet  hung  down  many 
inches  below  the  wide,  baggy  trousers,  and  the  reddish  woollen 
hose  that  encased  his  thin  ankles  made  them  look  absurdly  like 
bologna  sausages.  A  ministerial  coat  floated  out  behind,  and  the 
irreverent  wind  played  many  a  mad  prank  with  that  rusty,  black 
drapery.  Long,  bony,  claw-like  hands  clutched  the  bridle,  giving 
it  an  occasional  flap  to  encourage  tlie  mule  into  a  less  deliberate 
gait.  His  face,  thin,  sallow,  and  triangular,  looked  as  if  it  were 
a  total  stranger  to  wholesome  food.  ' '  Shade  of  the  departed 
Ichabod  Crane !  Has  he  been  reincarnated  ? "  I  exclaimed. 
"  What  did  ye  ask,  honey  ?  "  inquired  Mrs.  Silsbee.  The  angel  of 
discretion,  who  withheld  her  blessing  at  my  birth,  hovered  near 
just  long  enough  to  inspire  me  to  change  my  question  to  the  more 
intelligible  one,  ''  Who  is  that  man  ? "  She  hurried  to  the  window 
and  replied,  "  That  there  is  Brother  Nayloi*.  He!s  our  preacher 
down  to  Big  Spring  Church,  and  I  tell  ye  what,  he  is  done  forgot 
more  than  most  preachers  ever  knowed."  As  she  watched  the 
departing  figure  a  smile  of  loving  reverence  illumined  her  worn. 


54  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

aged  face,  restoring  for  a  moment  the  beauty  of  her  lost  youth, 
and,  transfigured  in  the  light  of  that  smile,  "Brother  Naylor" 
disappeared  from  view. 

This  method  of  calling  up  at  tlie  end,  explicitly  or  other- 
wise, tlie  subject  as  introduced  in  the  beginning  is  one  of 
the  most  common  and  most  effective  means  of  securing 
unity. 

2.  The  unity  of  theme  sliould  be  reenforced  by  harmony 
of  tone.  Every  composition  has  its  "  jjitch,''  which  should 
be  preserved  throughout.  It  may  be  oratorical  and  impas- 
sioned, it  may  be  argumentative  and  calm,  it  may  be  scien- 
tific and  teclmical,  it  may  be  literary  and  colloquial;  but 
whatever  it  is  it  should  be  consistent. 

A  few  illustrations  of  tlie  want  of  harmony  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  sentence  will  suffice  to  make  tliis  clear. 
One  young  essayist  writes:  "  I  am  awakened  every  bright 
morning  by  the  loud  whistle  of  a  SturneUa  magna  that 
perches  on  a  rail  of  the  pasture-fence  opposite  my  window," 
and  tlie  reader  scarcely  represses  a  smile.     Again : 

Imagine  sucli  a  play  as  "  Julius  Caesar  "  or  "  Henry  the  Fourth  " 
being  acted  in  a  round  wooden  building  open  to  the  sky  in  the 
audience  part  of  the  house,  although  the  stage  was  covered  by  a 
hanging  roof. 

The  appeal  at  the  outset  here  is  to  the  emotions,  an  appeal 
which  is  supported  by  the  descriptive  elements  ''wooden"' 
and  "  open  to  the  sky."  But  the  word  "  round  "  and  the 
precise  details  toward  the  close  convey  information  purely. 
They  do  not  heighten  our  sense  of  the  meagreness  of  theat- 
rical facilities  in  Shakespere's  day.  It  is  a  mixture  of 
poetic  and  prosaic  matter,  and  the  effect  is  somewhat  like 
the  effect  experienced  on  reading  the  well-known  apostrophe 
to  the  Thames  in  Deuham's  "  Cooper's  Hill"  : 

O  could  I  flow  like  thee,  and  make  thy  stream 

My  great  example,  as  it  is  my  theme  I 


THE  BODY.  55 

Though  deep  yet  clear,  though  gentle  yet  not  dull, 
Strong  without  rage,  without  o'erflowiug  full. 

Macaulay  was  sometimes  so  insensible  to  harmony  of  tone 
as  to  allow  the  intrusion  of  a  hard  fact  or  a  petty  and  pre- 
cise detail  to  mar  an  eloquent  passage.  In  describing  the 
trial  of  Warren  Hastings  he  writes  thus  : 

Every  step  in  the  proceedings  carried  the  mind  either  back- 
ward, through  many  troubled  centuries,  to  the  days  when  the 
foundations  of  our  constitution  were  laid  ;  or  far  away,  over 
boundless  seas  and  deserts,  to  dusky  nations  living  under  strange 
stars,  worshipping  strange  gods,  and  writing  strange  characters 
from  right  to  left. 

Many  examples  of  a  similar  incongruity  can  be  found  in 
the  news  columns  of  daily  papers.  Tlie  practice  of  sur- 
rounding the  simple  facts  of  news  witli  ceremony  and  os- 
tentation, of  seeking  out  the  dramatic  features  and  putting 
them  foremost,  and  of  serving  up  the  whole  in  a  mock-lit- 
erary style  has  grown  so  much  of  late  that  it  is  the  custom 
in  newspaper  offices  to  speak  of  these  accounts  as  "  stories." 
The  effect  is  often  little  short  of  ridiculous.  Take  a  speci- 
men : 

"  I'll  go  in  !  "  said  Captain  John  McAndrews  of  Chemical  No.  4. 

It  was  his  way  to  go  in  where  danger  was,  if  life  or  property  was 
to  be  saved.  The  four-story  brick  building  of  the  Union  Paper 
Company,  at  738  Wentworth  Street,  was  all  abaze.  Its  thin  walls 
were  tottering.     There  was  danger  at  every  point." 

This  begins  well,  according  to  the  standard  of  sensational 
novels.  But  even  the  standard  of  sensational  novels  would 
hardly  admit  the  intrusion  here  of  such  prosaic  details  as 
*' four-story  brick  building,"  "738  Wentworth  Street." 
The  clash  is  due  to  the  writer's  desire  to  write  eulogy  and 
the  necessity  of  writing  news.  The  proper  method  would 
have  been  to  tell  the  simple  facts  first,  and  then,  if  circum- 
stances warranted,  pay  a  tribute  to  the  fireman's  heroism 
in  a  separate  account. 


56  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

3.  Occasionally  an  essay  has  unity  without  sequence. 
The  relation  of  the  parts  to  the  central  theme  may  he  close, 
like  the  relation  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  to  the  hub,  but 
there  is  no  further  connection  between  the  parts.  Many 
of  Emerson's  essays  are  framed  in  this  manner.  But  the 
construction  is  not  common.  Usually  the  parts  are  not 
only  centralized,  but  they  also  sustain  a  relation  one  to 
another  somewhat  like  the  links  of  a  chain.  This  relation 
was  discussed  under  the  name  of  logical  sequence.  When 
this  relation  exists  there  are  commonly  outward  marks,  in 
the  form  of  relation-words  and  -phrases,  to  indicate  it.  The 
use  of  these  outward  marks  affords  clearness  and  ease  of 
transition,  and  gives  the  essay  its  general  colierence. 

A  glance  at  almost  any  jirinted  page  will  discover  illus- 
trations. Successive  paragraphs  in  the  latter  part  of 
Macaulay's  **  Lord  Clive  ''  show  the  following  transitional 
sentences : 

But  a  great  and  sudden  turn  in  affairs  was  at  hand  .  .  . 
It  was  impossible,  however,  that  even  the  miUtary  establish- 
ment .  .  . 

At  length  the  state  of  things  in  Bengal  began  to  excite  .   .  . 
This  feeling  manifested  itself  in  the  strongest  manner  ,  .  . 
Clive  rose  .  .  . 

From  Euskin's  "  Unto  this  Last": 

And  these  are  not,  observe,  merely  moral  or  pathetic  attributes 
of  riches  .  .   . 

And  therefore,  the  idea  that  directions  can  be  given  for  tiie 
gaining  of  wealth  .  .  . 

None  of  these  things  you  can  know  .  .  . 

It  has  been  shown  tliat  the  chief  value  and  virtue  of  money  .  .  . 

Trite  enough, — the  reader  I liiiiks  .  .  . 

But  farther  .  .   . 

So,  also,  the  power  of  our  v.ealtli  .  .  . 

Finally.     Since  tlic  essence  of  wealtli  .  .  . 

Nevertheless,  it  is  open,  I  rrjuat,  lo  serious  qiicsfion  .   .  . 


THE  BODY.     ,  57 

The  methods  of  transition  will  vary  with  the  character  and  pur- 
pose of  the  composition.  Where  the  rehitions  are  those  of  time 
or  space  adverbs  of  time  or  place  will  be  used.  Logical  relations 
will  be  indicated  by  the  appropriate  adverbs.  Where  there  is 
simple  overlapping  of  thought  there  will  be  repetitions  of  certain 
words,  or  demonstrative  and  personal  pronouns  will  resume  and 
carry  on  the  thought.  Additions,  admissions,  objections,  con- 
trasts, find  their  appropriate  conjunctions.  Tlie  simplest  of  all 
methods  of  binding  together  the  parts  of  a  discussion  is  the 
enumerative  method,  wdiich  consists  in  the  use  of  first,  second, 
third  (sometimes  first,  secondly,  thirdly),  etc.  But  it  is  also  the 
least  attractive  method.  The  employment  of  it  in  dry  sermons  is 
proverbial.  Its  place  is  in  the  text-book  (where  it  may  be  re- 
duced to  bare  numerals  at  the  beginnings  of  paragraphs),  in  scien- 
tific descriptions  and  classifications,  and  in  the  severer  types  of 
exposition  and  argument.  The  writer  who  aims  to  please  will 
seek  such  a  vital  relation  of  parts  as  will  give  in  itself  a  more 
natural  coherence.  Even  where  his  method  is  essentially  enumer- 
ative he  will  make  shift  to  find  some  livelier  articulation.  Per- 
liaps  one  of  the  most  skilful  and  useful  of  transitions  is  that  in 
which  the  theme  of  the  preceding  jjaragraph  is  referred  to  or  par- 
tially resumed.  For  examples  see  Appendix  C  xxii,  14,  15,  16. 
See  also  the  selection  from  Knight's  ' '  History  of  England  "  just 
below  ;  and  the  second  paragraph  of  section  8. 

4.  In  developing  the  theme  the  purpose  and  length  of 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  order  to  gauge  properly  the  re\- 
at'ive  jJroport  ion  of  parts.  We  have  seen  that  oneway  of 
securing  emphasis  for  any  given  point  is  to  reserve  it  fo'' 
the  end.  Another  way,  very  clearly,  is  to  dwell  upon  it 
and  expound  it  with  minute  and  elaborate  detail.  Because 
two  topics  occupy  similar  positions  in  the  outline  it  does 
not  follow  that  they  should  receive  the  same  attention  in 
the  development.  Each  must  be  treated  according  to  its 
relative  importance. 

Let  us  compare  the  following  passages: 


68  TEE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

(From  Macaulay's  "  Histoiy  of  Eii;;land,"  chapter  iii.) 

Leeds  wns  already  the  chief  seat  of  tlie  woollen  manufactures 
of  Yorlcshire:  but  the  elderly  inhabitants  could  still  remember 
the  time  when  the  lirsL  brick  house,  then  and  long  after  called 
the  Red  House,  was  built.  Tiiey  boasted  loudly  of  their  increas- 
ing wealth,  and  of  the  immense  sales  of  cloth  which  took  place  in 
tiie  open  air  on  the  bridge.  Hundreds,  nay  thousands  of  pounds, 
had  been  paid  down  in  the  course  of  one  busy  market  day.  The 
rising  importance  of  Leeds  had  attracted  the  notice  of  successive 
governments.  Charles  the  First  had  granted  municipal  privileges 
to  the  town.  Oliver  had  invited  it  to  send  one  member  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  But  from  the  returns  of  the  hearth-money 
it  seems  certain  that  the  whole  population  of  the  borough,  an  ex- 
tensive district  which  contains  many  handets,  did  not,  iu  the 
reign  of  Charles  the  Second,  exceed  seven  thousand  souls.  In 
1841  there  were  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.* 

(From  Kiii^'lit's  "  History  of  England/'  vol.  iv,  cliapti-rxx.) 

If  the  inhabitants  of  the  clothing  villages  are  now  essentially 
different  in  their  jnode  of  life,  how  much  more  striking  is  the  dif- 
ference between  the  Leeds  of  Queen  Anne  and  the  Leeds  that 
assembled  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  people  to  greet  Queen  Victoria 
in  1858!  The  great  cloth-market  of  Leeds  was,  iu  the  seventeenth 
century,  kept  u\Km  the  bridge  over  tlie  Aire.  As  the  market  in- 
creased it  was  removed  to  the  High-street.  From  the  bridge  to 
the  market-house  tressels  were  placed  in  th.e  street,  and  a  tempo- 
rary counter  was  formed.  The  clothiers  came  in  from  the  country, 
few  bringing  more  than  one  piece  of  cloth  ;  and,  after  the  refresh- 
ment of  a  pot  of  ale,  a  bowl  of  porridge,  and  a  trencher  of  beef, 
regularly  provided  for  twopence  by  the  public-house  keepers,  they 
were  at  their  tressels  by  six  o'clock  in  summer  and  by  seven  in 
winter.  Eacli  clothier  placed  his  cloth  lengthwise  upon  the  coun- 
ter—  "a  mercantile  regiment  drawn  up  in  line."  The  factors 
come  ;  examine  the  cloth  ;  and  conclude  a  bargain  in  a  whisper. 
In  a  short  time  the  clothiers  begin  to  move,  each  bearing  his  piece 
of  cloth  to  the  buyer's  house.  In  an  hour  the  business  is  over, 
and  the  market  is  left  to  the  shoemakers,  hardware-men,  and 
other  retailers.     Such  was  the  cloth-market  also  at  Haliiax  and 

♦  Tlioresljy's  Diicatus  Leod^nsis  :  WHiitaVer's  I-indis  and  Elmete  ;  Wardell's 
I\Iiiiiicipal  Histoiy  of  llie  Boroiif^h  of  Leeds. 


THE  BODY.  59 

Bradford,  before  tlie  days  of  the  Cloth  Hall  of  Leeds,  which  was 
built  ill  1711.* 

Now  tlie  index  to  Green's  '''History  of  the  English 
People  "  shows  no  mention  of  Leeds.  But  Green  writes  on 
a  smaller  scale  than  either  Knight  or  Macanlay,  and  this 
will  account  for  the  omission.  Knight,  however,  does  not 
write  on  so  great  a  scale  as  Macaulay  (who  in  four  large 
volumes  covers  only  about  fifteen  years  of  English  history) 
and  yet  his  paragraph  on  Leeds  is  longer  than  Macaulay's. 
Can  this  apparent  disproportion  be  accounted  for  ?  Yes. 
A  close  examination  will  show  that  Macaulay  is  reviewing 
the  change  that  had  taken  j^lace  in  the  cities  of  England, 
and  Leeds  is  only  one  among  the  cities  selected  for  descrip- 
tion. He  must  speak  of  the  entire  city  briefly.  Knight 
has  a  slightly  different  purpose.  He  is  exhibiting  the 
growth  of  English  trades,  nuinufactures,  and  industries 
generally,  and  as  a  typical  example  of  one  industry  he 
selects  the  cloth-market  of  Leeds.  Hence  his  expansion 
of  the  subject.  After  all,  it  is  not  Leeds  itself  that  is  the 
centre  of  interest  here,  but  the  manner  of  selling  cloth. 
Thus  the  relative  i)roportions  are  seen  to  be  justified. 

An  interesting  comparison  of  this  kind  can  be  made  between 
the  two  essays  on  "  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  "  by  Macaulay  and 
Carlyle.  The  essays  are  in  part  reviews  of  Croker's  edition  of 
Boswell,  and  both  are  constructed  on  precisely  the  same  plan  ; 
indeed  Carlyle's  essay  was  no  doubt  partly  intended  as  a  reply  to 
Macaulay's.  Both  essays  take  up  in  order  Croker  and  his  edition, 
Boswell  and  his  book,  and  Samuel  Johnson's  life,  work,  and  char- 
acter. Reduced  to  pages  of  the  same  size  and  type,  they  show 
the  following  proportions : 

Macaulay's  Essay.  Carlyle's  Essay. 

Croker  and  his  edition 25  9 

Boswell  and  his  book   7  21 

Johnson « 32  64 

Total  of  pages   64  94 

*  Thoresby's  "Leeds  "  and  Defoe's  "  Tour." 


60  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

The  most  striking  difference  is  in  the  first  division  :  Macuulay, 
with  the  shorter  essay,  gives  tlireo  times  as  much  space  to  Croker 
as  Carlyle  gives.  Tlie  difference  might  be  due  to  different  con- 
ceptions of  the  duties  of  a  reviewer,  but  we  know  that  Macaulay 
was  not  in  tlie  liabit  of  devoting  very  much  attention  to  the 
books  he  reviewed.  It  was  really  a  jjersonal  matter  in  this  case. 
Macaulay  disliked  Croker  and  scores  his  editing  severely.  It  is 
clear  that  the  reader  will  carry  away  from  Macaulay's  essay  a 
much  more  vivid  recollection  of  Croker  and  his  work  than  he  Avill 
from  Carlyle's  essay  ;  and  that  is  just  what  Macaulay  desired. 
On  the  other  hand,  Boswell  gets  less  than  one  ninth  of  Macau- 
lay's  space,  but  more  than  one  fifth  of  Carlyle's.  Macaulay  could 
see  little  merit  in  Boswell ;  Carlyle  saw  great  merit  in  him. 
With  Carlyle  the  hero-worshipper  is  sccoud  only  to  the  hero  him- 
self. And  of  course  the  hero,  Johnson,  is  by  far  the  largest 
figure  on  Carlyle's  canvas.  Macaulay  devoted  so  much  space  to 
Croker  that  toward  the  end  of  his  essay  lie  found  it  necessary  to 
cut  short  his  remarks  about  Johnson,  and  half  apologizes  for  so 
doing.  He  seems  to  have  realized  that  personal  animosity  had 
got  the  better  of  sound  judgment.  The  two  essays  will  yield 
other  interesting  studies  in  proportion.  Macaulay 's  will  probably 
be  found  to  contain  the  greater  number  of  exact  details.  Car- 
lyle's will  dwell  with  much  emphasis  of  force  and  repetition  on 
significant  features.  The  story,  for  example,  of  Johnson's  rela- 
tions to  Lord  Chesterfield,  Macaulay  alludes  to  in  four  words. 
Carlyle  sees  in  it  one  of  the  truest  exhibitions  of  Johnson's  char- 
acter and  accordingly  gives  it  two  pages,  transcribing  the  entire 
letter  written  by  Johnson  to  Chesterfield. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Examine  any  of  the  magazine  articles  listed  under 
10,  exercise  3,  with  reference  to  their  unity,  coherence, 
and  proportion.     Make  a  report  upon  the  same, 

2.  Criticise  the  unity,  coherence,  and  proportion  of  the 
following  essays  in  the  Appendix :  V>  vii,  ix,  xiii. 

3.  If  tlie  books  are  accessible,  compare  any  two  of  the 
following  essays  with  reference  to  the  relative  proportion 
of  parts: 


Tim  CONCLUSION.  61 

Lowell's  essay  on  Dan  to.     Cburcli's  essay  on  Dante. 

Car!yl(^  on  Sliakesi)ire  [Heroes  and  Ilcro-worsldp,  lecture  iii). 
E;uers;)n  on  Sbakespere  {Representative  Men). 

Carlyle  on  Napoleon  {Heroes  and  Ilero-wurslnp,  lecture  vi). 
Emerson  on  Napoleon  {Representative  Men). 

Republican  Party  Prospects.  J.  S.  Morrill.  Forum,  July  18S9. 
Tbe  Kepublican  Program.     J.  (f.  Carlisle.     Forum,  August  1889. 

Are  Football  (jaines  iMlucative  or  Brutalizing?  Four  articles  in 
Forum,  January  1S;)4. 

Tbe  Abolition  of  War.     Two  articles  in  Arena,  December  1894. 

14.  The  Conclusion. — A  fonuiil  conclusion,  us  well  us  a, 
formal  introduction,  muy  be  dispensed  with,  and  tlie  writer 
may  simply  stop  when  he  has  said  his  say.  But  he  who 
writes  with  the  most  practical  object  may  desire  to  make 
what  he  has  said  still  more  clear  or  more  emphatic,  while 
he  who  Avrites  with  an  artistic  purjiose  Avill  naturally  desire 
to  round  out  (,n'acefully  his  composition  and  leave  a  pleasant 
impression  with  the  reader.  Hence  arises  a  variety  of 
endings. 

1.  The  simjilest  conclusion  is  the  summary,  the  final 
gathering-  up  and  presenting  in  one  view  of  the  several 
points  that  have  l)een  made.  A  variation  of  tiiis  is  the 
selection  of  a  certain  point  or  points  for  restatement  with 
a  view  to  special  emphasis.  The  theme  itself  may  be 
restated  here,  either  nakedly  or  along  with  such  explaua- 
tions  and  inferences  as  find  no  a^^propriate  place  elsewhere. 
In  the  case  of  sermons,  and  didactic  and  persuasive  compo- 
sition generally,  the  conclusion  often  contains  the  applica- 
tion of  the  truths  educed  in  the  course  of  the  exposition, 
the  "lesson,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  Similarly,  indeed, 
in  the  case  of  stories  and  sketches  of  all  kinds  the  conclu- 
sion is  the  ])lace  for  pointing  a  moral,  ii"  one  has  the  courage 
to  be  so  old-fashioned.  But  formal  and  elaborately  rhe- 
torical endings — ''  perorations  "  they  are  called  in  oratory — 
are  much  less  sought  after  to-day  than  they  have  been  in 
the  past. 


62  THE   WBOLE  COMPOSITION. 

2.  The  conclusion  is  like  tlie  introduction  in  that  it  ad- 
mits of  a  more  personal  tone  than  does  the  body  of  the 
composition,  establishing  more  or  less  intimate  relations 
between  Avriter  and  reader.  It  should  usually  be  written 
with  some  reference  to  the  introduction  too,  answering 
questions  or  following  out  hints  that  were  left  in  an  in- 
conclusive form  there.  The  correspondence  may  be  made 
very  exact.  If  tlie  introduction,  for  example,  is  historical, 
the  conclusion  may  very  appropriately  be  prophetic.  But 
the  conclusion  must  also  keep  close  to  the  matter  of  the 
discussion,  even  closer  than  the  introduction.  No  new 
matter  of  importance  should  be  introduced  here,  unless  the 
conclusion  is  only  a  temporary  one,  intended  to  pave  the 
Avay  for  a  sequel.  One  is  surprised,  for  example,  in  read- 
ing a  description  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  which  no 
mention  has  been  made  of  music  to  find  the  following  stand 
as  tlie  final  paragrapli: 

One  niiglit  spend  weeks  on  these  islands  in  sight-seeing  and 
studying  tlie  people  ;  but  of  all  the  scenes  :ind  cnstoins  witli 
which  the  visitor  becomes  acqnainted,  probably  the  Hawaiiuns' 
rendering  of  their  native  music  is  the  most  pleasantly  remem- 
bered. 

It  is  clear  wliy  tlic  writer  selected  this  for  tlie  conclud- 
ing statement:  he  desired  to  make  it  emphatic.  But  it 
arouses  curiosity  tliat  is  left  unsatisfied.  Had  he  written 
somewhat  at  length  of  native  Hawaiian  music  he  might 
well  have  returned  to  it  tlius  in  his  conclusion;  but  it  was 
wrong  to  mention  tlie  matter  here  for  the  first  time. 

3.  The  restriction  just  made  must  not  be  applied  too 
rigorously.  Actual  abruptness  is  often  good.  Perhaps  the 
weakest  of  all  conclusions  is  that  which  rounds  out  too 
completely,  which  closes  tlie  discussion  with  the  air  of  hav- 
ing said  absolutely  the  last  word.  Not  to  say  too  much  is 
the  art  of  closing  a  story  elTectively.     Kipling  knows  this 


TUE  CONCLUSION.  63 

well;  witness  the  last  sentence  of  his  "Cupid's  Arrows": 
"  But  Cubbon  took  her  away  instead,  and — the  rest  isn't 
worth  printing."  In  Olive  Schreiner's  "  Story  of  an  Afri- 
can Farm  "  the  reader  is  left  face  to  face  with  the  tragedy 
of  the  tale  in  the  simple  statement,  "But  the  chickens 
were  wiser."  Now  there  is  no  reason  Avhy  this  principle  of 
suggestiveness  may  not  be  applied  to  essays  also.  There  is 
nothing  to  forbid  a  writer  from  opening  up  to  tlie  reader 
new  vistas  of  tliought  and  imagination.  It  was  a  mistake, 
in  the  conclusion  quoted  above,  to  introduce  the  subject  of 
native  Hawaiian  music,  because  the  reader  cannot  follow  it 
out  for  himself;  bxit  it  is  not  wrong  in  the  following— the 
conclusion  of  Edward  Dowden's  essay  on  "The  Tran- 
scendental Movement " — to  introduce  the  subject  of  George 
Eliot's  novels,  because  the  intelligent  reader  may  be  as- 
sumed to  be  familiar  with  them : 

Meanwhile  for  the  present  one  great  miaginative  writer  repre- 
sents at  their  highest  the  tendencies  of  our  time,  and,  concentrat- 
ing her  vision  upon  this  earth  and  the  life  of  men,  has  seen  in 
these  good  and  evil,  joy  and  anguish,  terrors  and  splendors,  as 
wonderful  as  ever  appeared  to  any  poet  of  transcendentalism. 
That  the  inductions  of  science  and  the  ethics  of  positivism  trans- 
form but  do  not  destroy  what  is  spiritual  in  m;m  is  demonstrated 
by  the  creations  of  "  Komola"  and  ''  Daniel  Deronda." 

Suggestiveness  and  humor  together  are  found  in  the  fol- 
lowing from  an  essay  on  "  Railroad  Competition  and  Com- 
bination " : 

It  is  all  very  well  to  talk  of  free  competition  and  survival  of 
the  fittest.  But  permanent  competition  is  virtually  out  of  the 
question.  And  survival  of  the  fittest  is  only  possible  when  the 
unfittest  can  be  physically  removed — a  thing  which  is  impossible 
in  the  case  of  an  unfit  trunk  line.  The  lion  and  the  lamb  must 
lie  down  together.  The  only  questions  are,  first,  how  long  before 
this  state  of  things  is  to  come  about ;  and,  second,  whether  the 
lion  is  to  lie  down  outside  of  the  lamb. 


64  THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION. 

4.  Let  us  look  at  several  varieties  of  more  formal  con- 
clusions.    The  frankly  summarizing  conclusion: 

To  recapitulate,  then  :  I  would  defiue,  in  brief,  the  Poetry  of 
words  as  The  Rhythmical  Creation  of  Beautxj.  Its  sole  arbiter  is 
Taste.  With  tlie  Intellect  or  with  the  Conscience  it  has  only  col- 
lateral relations.  Unless  incidentally,  it  has  no  concern  whatever 
either  with  Duty  or  with  Truth.— E.  A.  PoE :  The  Poetic  Principle. 

Less  distinctly  summarizing,  but  clearly  resuming: 

Tlius  this  singularly  eccentric  and  independent  mind,  wedded 
to  a  character  of  so  much  strongtli,  singleness,  and  purity,  pur- 
sued its  own  path  of  self-improvement  for  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury, part  gymnosophist,  part  backwoodsman  ;  and  thus  did  it 
come  twice,  though  in  a  subaltern  attitude,  into  the  field  of  polit- 
ical history.— R.  L.  Stevenson  :  Henry  Ikund  Thoreau. 

Restatement  of  important  points  for  impressiveness: 

In  conclusion,  my  dear  young  friend,  let  me  once  more  impress 
upon  your  mind  that  a  political  career  is  full  of  temptations  and 
disappointments.  I  fear  that  for  many  years  to  come  an  honest 
man  must  be  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  our  legislatures.  He 
must  resist  the  lobby  which  corrupts  and  the  party  organization 
which  deceives.  He  must  place  his  professional  honor  securely 
upon  principle,  not  upon  expediency.  He  must  be  prepared  to 
be  called  all  manner  of  names,  and  in  the  end,  perhaps,  to  be 
rated  a  worldly  failure.— W.  D,  McCrackan  :  Politics  as  a 
Career.      T'he  Arena.,  January  189.5. 

Suggestions  for    the    treatment   of   another    phase  of   the 
subject,  together  with  exhortation : 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  allow  a  statement  of  the  details 
of  the  remedy.  But  it  is  clear  that  nothing  will  do  short  of  a 
complete  abolition  of  the  system,  and  a  legal  requirement  that 
manufacturers  shall  provide  large,  airy,  well-lighted  rooms  in 
which  tlie  work  shall  be  done.  The  thing  for  you  and  me  to  do 
is  to  make  j)ublic  opinion.  Agitate,  agitate,  agitate !  Show 
people  the  prevalence  of  lliis  iniquity,  and  I  have  confidence  tliat 
if  it  is  exhibited  once,  twice,  thrice,  to   a   humane   public  the 


THE  CONCLUSION.  65 

sovereign  decree  will  come  forth,  "Abolish  it."  And  it  would 
be  done.  God  speed  tlie  day  ! — F.  M.  Goddchild:  The  Sweating 
System  in  Philadelphia.     Tlie  Arena,  Juuuary  1895. 

EXERCISE. 

Examine,  for  both  merits  and  defects,  the  conclusions 
of  the  selections  in  the  Appendix,  especially  B  iii,  v,  ix, 

XI,  XIII,   XIV,  C  XVI,  XIX. 


THE    PARAGRAPH, 

1.     NATURE    OF    THE    PARAGRAPH. 

15.  Technical  Definition. — We  have  seen  that  the  anal- 
ysis of  au  orgiiuized  composition  shows  it  to  consist  of 
parts,  "whole  systems  and  sub-systems  of  parts,"  down  to 
the  simplest  unit  of  formal  discourse,  the  sentence.  Now 
the  sentence,  in  writing  and  printing,  has  its  own  dis- 
tinguisliing  marks — the  capital  letter  and  the  period. 
And  it  is  evident  that  some  device  for  indicating  the  larger 
units  or  parts  will  be  of  like  utility.  This  device  is  found 
in  what  is  technically  called  ''paragraphing,"  in  whicli 
the  first  line  of  the  matter  that  -is  to  constitute  a  separate 
jiaragraph  is  "  indented"  and  the  lust  line  ''spaced  out." 
Further  details  will  be  found  in  Part  V,  on  Mechanical 
Processes,  section  62. 

16.  Logical  Definition. — Paragraphing  is  a  device  that 
catches  the  eye,  but,  as  just  intimated,  it  has  a  significance 
back  of  that.  'J'lie  mistake  should  never  be  made  of 
assuming  tliat  it  is  intended  merely  to  break  up  a  page  and 
make  it  beautiful,  as  it  were,  by  giving  it  a  more  open 
appearance.  I'he  open  page  may  have  more  attraction  for 
the  desultory  reader,  and  writers  may  allow  themselves  at 
times  and  within  certain  limits  to  be  influenced  by  this 
consideration,  but  in  no  serious  work  should  such  a  con- 
sideration make  paragraphing  wholly  arbitrary  and  mean- 
ingless. The  logical  and  legitimate  paragraph  is  a  unit,  a 
group  of  seiitences  expressing  ideas  that  are  closely  related 

66 


LOGICAL  DEFINITION.  67 

among  themselves,  and  that,  as  a  group,  are  more  or  less 
sharply  distinguished  from  other  groups.  These  groups, 
taken  together,  constitute  the  fully  developed  theme.  All 
of  this  has  been  pretty  clearly  indicated  in  the  directions 
for  preparation  of  the  outline  (10).  The  various  aspects 
of  the  general  theme  as  there  set  forth  will  afford  the  topics 
of  the  various  paragraphs.  And  so  natural  and  funda- 
mental are  these  divisions  that  they  will  be  indicated  in 
speaking  as  well  as  in  writing — by  longer  pauses,  by  changed 
intonation  or  emphasis,  just  as  marks  of  punctuation  have 
their  vocal  counterparts. 

1.  It  is  important  that  the  double  relation  of  the  para- 
graph be  kept  in  mind.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  a  depend- 
ent member  of  the  Avhole  composition,  having  a  close  ar- 
ticulation with  adjoining  members.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  an  organism  in  itself,  somewhat  like  a  composition  in 
miniature,  having  a  special  function  of  its  own  apportioned 
among  the  separate  sentences,  which  are  its  own  members. 
It  frequently  happens  that  all  that  is  said  upon  a  given 
subject  is  said  in  a  single  group  of  sentences,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, in  newspaper  editorials.  Such  isolated  groups  may  be, 
and  are,  in  newspaper  parlance,  called  "  paragraphs,"  but 
it  is  clear  that  they  are  not  paragraphs  at  all  in  our  sense  of 
the  word.  They  arc  simply  brief  but  whole  compositions, 
and  are  to  be  treated  as  such  unless  they  dwindle  to  mere 
notes  or  items  of  one  or  two  sentences.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  a  writer  chooses  to  chop  up  his  composition  into  bits, 
giving  to  each  sentence  the  form  of  a  separate  paragraph, 
it  is  clear  that  he  also  is  not  writing  paragraphs  properly  so 
called,  since  his  divisions  are  not  groups,  they  have  no  in- 
ternal logical  organism,  and  they  can  express  no  relation 
that  is  not  already  expressed  by  sentence  division.  These 
two  variations  from  the  paragraph  proper  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following: 


68  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Domokos  is  the  latest,  and,  as  we  go  to  press,  appears  to  be  the 
last,  Greek  defeat  that  the  Powers  will  tolerate.  Turkey's  hand 
has  been  forced,  against  the  will  of  the  German  emperor,  but  by 
the  commanding  weight  of  Kussia  and  her  allies  in  this  miserable 
business.  The  Porte's  demands  are  pronounced  extravagant  as 
regards  indemnity  in  money  and  in  territory;  Thessaly  is  not  to 
be  restored  to  Turkey,  nor  is  abolition  of  the  capitulations  to  be 
thought  of.  In  short,  while  Turkey  has  been  allowed  to  operate 
up  to  a  certain  point  as  if  in  vacuo,  she  is  now  reminded  of  the 
artificiality  of  her  ''  integrity,"  and  that  her  offensive-defensive 
is  not  subject  to  the  laws  or  chance  of  war  alone.  She  exists  by 
the  grace  of  Christian  fleets  for  the  benefit  of  non-Moslem  bond- 
holders until  the  convenient  hour  of  partition  arrives  and  the  Sick 
Man  is  bowed  down  and  out  of  Europe.  For  the  moment  she  stays 
her  victorious  arms  on  the  border  of  what  used  to  be  known  as 
Greece  proper.— Editorial  in  T/te  Nation,  May  20,  1897. 

In  accordance  with  our  agreement,  I  write  to  beg  you  to  call 
the  immediate  attention  of  the  President  to  the  letter  which  I 
send  him  by  the  same  post. 

Mr.  Evarts  has  declared  that  he  can  do  nothing  until  he  knows 
the  intentions  of  the  French  government. 

I  have  seen  again  the  French  Minister,  M.  Outrey.  He  is  still 
awaiting  instructions.  A  despatch  to  him,  to  be  transmitted  to 
tiie  American  government,  is  indispensable. 

Under  the  circumstances  I  count  on  your  patriotism. 

The  nomination  of  commissioners  is  the  next  end  to  be  achieved 
by  the  instigators  of  the  French-American  movement. 

To  attempt  to  go  farther  at  this  time  would  be  to  run  the  risk 
of  comi)romising  everything, 

The  mere  nomination  of  commissioners  does  not  amount  to  a 
pledge.     I  await  it. 

If  I  do  not  obtain  it,  public  opinion  shall  say  which  of  us,  you 
or  I,  is  really  devoted  to  the  interests  of  France. — Leon  Chot- 

TEAU  :  Letter  to  M ,  Pit r is. 

2.  In  the  King  James  version  of  tlie  Bible  the  numbered 
verses  liave  the  form  of  piiriigriiphs,  but  the  real  paragi-aphs 
are  indicated  by  the  mark  1.  In  poetry  the  stanza  form 
jiiaku,-;  ini])oss;il)](!  any  para.i;ra])h  division  that  does  not  coin- 


LENGTH  OF  PARA0RAPE8.  69 

cide  with  the  stanza  division.  In  a  dialogue  or  conversa- 
tion the  alternate  speeches  are  naturally  given  the  form  of 
separate  paragraphs,  even  though  a  speech  consists  of 
but  a  single  word,  as  ''Yes"  or  "^o."  See  Appendix 
C  XVI  and  xix.  Mere  scraps  of  conversation  are  often  run 
in  with  the  paragraphs  to  which  they  properly  beloug. 
For  example,  in  xix,  8,  tliere  would  be  a  gain  in  immediate 
clearness  if  the  quoted  words  were  incorporated  with  the 
sentences  preceding,  since  they  constitute  a  logical  part  of 
them,  the  pronoun  he  in  the  quotation  referring  to  Dr. 
Pusey.     See  also  xv,  9. 

17.  Kinds  of  Paragraphs. — In  the  different  kinds  of 
composition  different  principles  control  the  grouping  of 
ideas,  resulting  in  different  kinds  of  paragraplis.  The 
descriptive  paragraph  naturally  deals  with  objects  that  are 
contiguous  in  space,  or  that  form  one  picture  upon  the 
retina  of  the  eye.  The  narrative  paragraph  deals  Avith  a 
single  point  of  time,  or  with  a  definitely  marked  stage  in 
the  progress  of  events.  The  expository  paragraph  is  made 
up  of  ideas  that  have  a  close  logical  relation. 

This  may  be  made  clear  by  reference  to  the  selections  in 
the  Appendix.  For  example,  A  Bee  Hunt  (C  xv)  is  nar- 
rative, and  its  several  paragraphs  begin  after  this  fashion: 

"We  had  not  been  long  in  the  camp  when  a  party  set  out  in 
quest  of  a  bee-tree. 

After  proceeding  some  distance  we  came  to  an  ojjen  'place. 

Two  of  the  bee-hunters  now  'plied  their  axes  vigorously. 

One  of  the  hunters  immediately  ran  up  with  a  wisp  of  lighted 
hay. 

18.  Length  of  Paragraphs. — It  might  seem  that  since 
the  paragrajoh  is  a  logical  unit  its  length  need  not  be  con- 
sidered— it  will  be  determined  by  the  grouping  of  ideas. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  paragraph  is  extremely 
elastic^  and  paragraph  division,   as  wo  shall  see  later,  is 


70  THE  PARAQliAPn. 

necessarily  somcwhiit  arbitniry,  so  tliat  the  consideration 
of  mere  length  may  be  allowed  some  weight.  In  general, 
a  toj^ic  cannot  be  satisfactorily  developed  in  fewer  than 
three  sentences  ;  cousequenth'  a  jxaragraph  of  only  one  or 
two  sentences  is  not  common,  at  least  not  in  exjiository 
writing.  On  the  other  hand,  how  many  sentences  might 
go  into  a  single  and  logically  indivisible  group  no  one  can 
say.  But  there  is  great  reluctance  on  the  part  of  writers 
to  allow  the  jDaragraph  to  exceed  very  much  tlie  limits  of  a 
printed  page.  The  solid  page  has  a  forbidding  aspect, 
portending  close  reasoning  and  either  slow-moving  or 
tediously  minute  thought.  Thus,  by  logic  and  practice, 
the  limits  within  which  the  paragraph  length  may  vary  are 
fairly  well  defined. 

1.  The  single-sentence  paragraph  has  been  much  affected 
of  late,  i^articularly  by  French  writers.  In  the  short  story 
it  may  be  defended  on  the  ground  that  it  represents  a 
definite  and  independent  portion  of  the  time  or  action.  In 
any  case  it  may  have  an  epigrammatic  force  that  is  not  to 
be  overlooked  nor  undervalued.  In  a  cha})ter  of  "Les 
Miserables  "  Victor  Hugo,  after  telling  how  the  country 
people  had  given  the  dependent  and  wretched  Cosette  tlie 
so])riqiiet  of  "the  lark"  because  she  was  so  little  and 
timid  and  always  up  and  at  work  so  early  in  the  morning, 
concludes  with  a  paragraph  of  singular  power: 

Only  this  poor  lark  never  sang. 

The  whole  plot  of  a  story  may  be  unwound,  or  the  wliole 
point  of  an  argument  may  lie,  in  a  single  sentence,  and 
certainly  in  sucli  a  case  the  single  sentence  is  entitled  to 
the  distinction  and  emphasis  of  a  se])arate  paragrapli  form. 
Macaulay  in  the  middle  of  his  essay  on  Samuel  Johnscn 
presents  a  somewhat  detached  fact  with  great  empliasis  in 
a  single-sentence  paragraph,  thus  : 


LENGTH  OF  PABAGIiAPIIS.  71 

For  the  copyright  of  the  "  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes"  Johnson 
received  only  fifteen  guineas. 

The  abuse  of  this  paragraph  in  tlie  sensational  novel  or 
in  light  newspaper  gossip  may  be  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lovs^ing  : 

I  unwittingly  introduce  the  i)ractice  of  arriving  at  the  Hotel 
Rafael  by  the  six-thirty  from  town. 

One  is  expected  by  the  five-ten. 

Fashion  travels  at  that  hour,  or  something  earlier,  perhaps. 
But  later,  never. 

After  the  five-ten — the  curfew. 

The  omnibus  is  closed  against  the  summer  drizzle.  I  ride  in  it 
in  lonely  state  and  I  come  out  of  it  to  the  surprise  of  hall-boys 
and  of  clerks. 

A  girl  frisking  up  and  down  the  sloppy  piazza  with  a  damp 
little  man  at  her  heels  conies  and  peers  in  at  the  hall  door,  the 
mist  sparkling  on  her  lashes. 

"Whoever,"  she  says  audibly,  "whoever  is  arriving  at  this 
hour  ? " 

2.  Apart  from  such  considerations  the  meagre  and 
"scrappy"  paragraph  is  to  be  avoided.  There  is  some- 
tliing  radically  wrong  about  the  thought,  the  substance,  of 
an  essay  when  scarcely  two  or  three  sentences  can  be  made 
to  go  together.  The  topics  need  further  amplification  to 
be  of  weight  or  value  and  to  be  clearly  understood  in  all 
their  relations.  Some  paragra2)]is  may  be  brief,  but  tiie 
most  of  them  should  have  an  appreciable  body.  The 
writer  who  allowed  the  two  following  sentences  to  stand  for 
a  paragraph  of  his  essay  had  made  only  a  fair  beginning. 
The  topic  is  large,  and  mucli  additional  matter  Avas  needed 
to  make  an  adequate  and  well-proportioned  paragraph. 

Tiie  Quaker  denomination  originated  during  the  most  exciting 
times  in  English  history.  There  was  a  continual  conflict  between 
the  Churches,  and  religions  discussions  became  the  talk  of  the 
day. 


72  THE  PARAORAPH. 

On  the  other  hand,  wlien  the  paragraphs  grow  to  an 
unwieldy  length  the  thought  is  probably  growing  un- 
wieldy too,  and  amputation  is  in  order.  Or,  if  the  thought 
cannot  be  simplified  without  detriment,  perhajDS  the  ob- 
jection of  overlengthy  paragraphs  can  be  met  by  resorting 
to  a  new  principle  of  division.  Thus,  as  will  be  illustrated 
below,  the  paragraph,  which  in  some  parts  of  the  essay  is 
used  to  distinguish  certain  groups  of  ideas,  will  in  other 
parts  be  used  to  distinguish  sub-groups. 

The  meagreness  of  his  paragraphs  is  one  of  the  prevail- 
ing defects  of  a  young  writer's  compositions.  It  will  be 
noted  that  few  of  the  compositions  in  Appendix  B  have 
paragraphs  that  will  equal  in  size  those  of  the  composi- 
tions in  Appendix  C.  While  this  may  be  accounted  for  in 
part  by  the  smaller  compass  of  the  former  compositions,  it 
is  doubtless  chiefly  due  to  the  inability  of  the  writers  to  say 
very  much  on  any  given  topic.  The  defect  may  be  rem- 
edied by  a  study  of  the  method  of  developing  a  paragraph, 
though  of  course  there  must  always  be  material  to  support 
such  development. 

19.  Principles  of  Division. — The  partial  arbitrariness 
of  paragraph  division,  or  rather  the  latitude  allowed  and 
practised,  makes  the  whole  subject  somewhat  difficult  to 
deal  with.  A  careful  study  of  writings  of  every  descrip- 
tion will  reveal  the  fact  that  very  few  even  of  our  best 
writers  make  really  good  23aragraphs.  Either  the  writers 
are  careless  about  consistency  or  else  they  do  not  know  the 
significance  of  the  paragraph  and  fail  to  appreciate  its 
value  as  a  device  for  securing  greater  intelligibility.  De 
Quincey,  the  stylist,  is  sometimes  deplorably  lax  in  this 
respect,  and  Huxley,  the  scientist,  in  the  paragraphing  of 
his  looser  essays  and  addresses  betrays  a  most  unscientific 
method.  The  difficulty,  of  course,  lies  partly  in  tlie  fact 
that  there  cannot  be  entire  consistency  of  practice.     Ex- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  DIVISION.  73 

cept  the  paragraph,  we  have  in  general  use  no  formal  unit 
between  the  whole  composition  and  the  sentence.  And 
yet  we  have  seen  that  between  these  two  there  are  many 
logical  units.  The  expository  essay  may  have  a  well-defined 
introduction,  a  body,  and  a  conclusion.  The  body  has  its 
divisions,  these  divisions  have  their  subdivisions,  and  so  on. 
Here  are  many  relations.  One  device  cannot  indicate  them 
all.  Which  shall  it  indicate?  There  can  be  no  definite 
answer  :  each  writer  must  determine  his  own  practice.  In 
general  the  paragraph  represents  the  minutest  subdivisions 
of  the  thought,  and  the  reader's  intelligence  is  trusted  to 
make  the  proper  grouping  of  the  paragraphs  themselves. 
By  this  system  it  is  evident  that  in  the  more  intricate 
and  detailed  sections  of  a  composition  the  paragraph  will 
stand  for  narrower  divisions  than  in  the  other  sections. 

1.  Under  section  10  is  given  an  outline  of  a  chapter  on 
"  The  Value  of  Reading."  Now  the  first  point  in  that 
outline,  "The  mark  of  an  educated  man,"  occupies  a 
paragraph  in  the  original  chapter.  What  remains  of  the 
introduction,  however,  goes  into  a  single  sentence,  and 
that  sentence  and  all  of  the  discussion  down  to  "  makes 
knowledge  cumulative  "  constitute  a  second  paragraph — a 
transitional  paragraph,  evidently,  and  yet  one  containing 
much  valuable  matter  that  could  not  be  ignored  in  con- 
structing a  rational  outline.  Farther  along  a  separate 
paragraph  is  given  to  each  of  the  subdivisions,  "General 
culture,"  "  Information,"  etc.  It  is  evident  that  here  there 
is  no  close  correspondence  between  the  paragraph  division 
and  the  topics  as  outlined.  Yet  both  the  division  and  the 
outline  seem  sufficiently  logical. 

2.  There  are  devices  by  which  the  larger  divisions  of  a 
composition  can  be  indicated.  The  use  of  them,  however, 
is  chiefly  confined  to  compositions  that  have  grown  to  the 
size  of  a  volume  or  more.     The  most  familiar  is  the  num- 


74  THE  PARAGRAPH 

bered  chapter.  And  eliapters  may  be  grouped  into  parts  or 
volumes.  On  the  other  hand,  groups  of  paragraphs  within 
a  chapter  may  be  numbered  as  separate  sections  and 
marked  Avith  the  section-mark  §.  Euskin's  ''i\Iodern 
Painters''  is  thus  arranged.  Or  a  simple  space  left  on  the 
printed  or  written  page  may  be  used  to  separate  sections. 
Carlyle's  works  are  frequently  printed  thus.  To  all  of 
these  devices  are  added  in  rigorously  systematized  works, 
such  as  text-books,  different  stNdes  and  sizes  of  type  and 
varieties  of  indention. 

3.  The  question  of  just  how  much  were  best  included  in 
a  single  paragraph  will  continually  arise.  If  a  tojuc  is 
presented  under  two  contrasting  asjDCcts,  shall  each  jires- 
entation  constitute  a  separate  paragraph  ?  Probably  so 
if  the  two  presentations  are  of  equal  length  and  importance. 
But  if  one  is  meant  simply  as  a  foil  to  the  other,  if  the 
contrary  of  a  statement,  for  example,  is  introduced  merely 
to  confirm  the  truth  or  add  to  the  emphasis  of  the  state- 
ment, there  should  be  but  one  'paragraph.  Shall  an  illus- 
tration be  incorporated  in  the  same  paragi-aph  as  the  tiling 
illustrated  ?  In  general,  yes  ;  but  if  the  illustration  is 
long  it  may  be  separated,  and  if  it  takes  the  form  of  a  bit  of 
history  or  an  anecdote  it  may  even  be  subdivided  into  para- 
graphs of  its  own.  The  narrative  paragraph  is  extremely 
elastic.  A  dozen  events  may,  if  they  take  place  within  a 
brief  space  of  time,  or  if  they  are  closely  connected  as  cause 
and  effect,  and  if  they  are  enumerated  rapidly,  be  gathered 
into  one  paragraj^h.  J.  E.  Green  in  his  "^  Short  History 
of  the  English  People  "  lias  carried  this  process  to  an  ex- 
treme, writing  jiaragraphs  that  in  some  cases  extend  over 
three  closely  printed  octavo  pages.  It  is  conceivable  that 
another  Avriter  might  be  tempted  to  give  to  each  event  a 
sejiarate  paragraph.  If,  at  the  outset  of  a  story,  the  time 
is  given  in  one  sentence,  the  place  in  another,  and  so  en. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  DIVISION.  75 

there  is  evidently  a  gain  in  liveliness  and  dramatic  effect 
by  writing  thus  : 

It  was  late  in  the  fall  of  the  year  of  drouth  1860. 
Two  cabins  stood  facing  eacli  other  across  a  white  road  on  the 
Western  plains. 

The  more  conservative  method,  however,  would  be  to  run 
these  brief  explanations  into  a  single  introductory  para- 
graph. Again,  if  the  conclusion  of  an  argument  that  has 
run  through  several  paragraphs  be  given  in  a  single  sen- 
tence, that  sentence  were  best  allowed  to  stand  alone,  for 
otherwise  it  might  seem  to  be  a  conclusion  only  of  the 
paragraph  to  which  it  should  be  attached.  Or  a  sentence 
that  in  itself  constitutes  an  introduction  to  a  number  of 
paragraphs  or  to  a  whole  composition  may  stand  by  itself. 
Thus  : 

"What  shall  we  do  with  our  paupers  ? 

This  is  a  question  that  is  becoming  daily  more  urgent.    Etc. 

But  here  again  the  usual  practice  is  to  run  the  sentence 
in  Avith  the  first  of  the  paragraphs  to  which  it  is  introduc- 
tory. See,  for  example,  the  first  sentence  of  section  8  of 
this  book.  '*  Selection  must  follow  collection  "  is  the  theme 
of  the  entire  section,  consisting  of  many  paragraphs.  See 
also  Appendix  1>  xiii,  7  and  8,  So  a  transitional  sentence 
is  usually  run  in  with  either  the  paragraph  that  precedes  it 
or  the  one  that  follows  it — more  commonly  the  one  that 
follows  it  ;  although  if  it  seem  desirable  to  indicate  with 
special  clearness  that  a  transition  is  made,  not  to  a  single 
paragraph,  but  to  a  group  of  paragraphs,  the  transitional 
sentence  may  stand  by  itself.  If  the  transition  can  be 
effected  only  with  a  number  of  sentences  those  sentences 
will  very  properly  stand  by  themselves  as  a  transitional 
paragraph. 


76  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Eeparagraph  Appendix  B  xii  and  xiY. 

2.  Criticise  closely  the  paragraphing  of  the  selection  from 
Huxley,  Appendix  C  xxi. 

3.  The  following  is  the  introduction  of  an  article  entitled 
"  Engineering  Ethics,"  lieparagraph  it,  combining,  wher- 
ever possible,  two  or  three  j)aragraphs  into  one. 

Professions  develop  slowly  according  to  tlie  needs  of  society.  If 
we  except  the  ancient  civilization  of  the  Greeks,  contempt  of 
learning  was  formerly  so  universal  that  it  was  considered  un- 
manly and  degrading  to  devote  one's  life  to  the  study  of  physical 
or  natural  laws.  The  warrior  only  was  thought  a  proper  type  of 
man. 

But  his  property  rights  required  the  occasional  skill  of  persons 
to  devise  means  for  conveyancing,  transferring,  and  bequeathing 
lauds  and  personal  effects.  Wounds  in  battle,  fevers  acquired 
from  hardships,  must  be  cured  to  preserve  life. 

Law  and  medicine  came  to  a  slow  but  gradual  recognition.  It 
is  comparatively  only  in  recent  times  that  either  or  both  have  ar- 
rived at  a  full  acknowledgment  as  learned  professions,  honored 
by  man  as  noble  and  fitting  courses  in  which  to  devote  all  the 
time  and  energy  of  a  life. 

Medical  practitioners  were  leeches  and  apothecaries  ;  lawyers 
were  scriveners  and  notaries.  Both  were  regarded  with  disdain 
and  ridicule.  They  sat  at  the  lower  end  of  the  banquet-board, 
not  much  above  the  hostler,  and  with  the  keepers  of  the  hounds 
and  the  foresters. 

Lucinda,  the  gay  actress  described  in  "  Gil  Bias,"  makes  many 
apologies  for  her  marriage  to  an  attorney.  She  said,  "This  in- 
congruous marriage  ruined  me  in  the  esteem  of  the  gentry  about 
Valencia.  The  women  of  quality  looked  upon  me  as  a  woman 
who  had  lowered  herself,  and  refused  any  longer  to  visit  me." 

Likewise  barbers  divided  with  doctors  the  duties  of  surgeons, 
and  the  red-and-white  barber's  pole  is  an  historical  monument  of 
the  fact. 

Engineering  cannot  expect  to  attain  full  recognition  from  the 
general  public  without  going  through  some  such  experience  as 


MODIFICATION  OF  THE  TOPIC.  77 

have  the  law  and  medical  professions.  The  old  idea  of  the  land- 
surveyor  is  still  thought  by  many  persons  to  represent  all  that  the 
engineering  profession  embraces.  Engineering  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  modern  profession,  for  its  development  in  a  system- 
atic and  learned  manner  is  of  very  recent  years,  although  its  be- 
ginning was  in  most  ancient  times. 

II.     CONSTRUCTION. 

20.  The  Topic— First  of  all  we  must  have,  in  construct- 
ing a  logical  paragrapli,  a  topic  upon  v^hich  to  build,  just 
as  a  whole  composition  is  necessarily  built  upon  a  funda- 
mental theme.  This  topic  may  be  stated  at  any  point  in 
the  paragraph,  beginning,  middle,  or  end ;  or  it  may  not  be 
definitely  formulated  at  all,  but  simply  left  as  a  natural  in- 
ference from  what  is  expressed.  Around  this  central  idea 
the  paragraph  is  constructed  by  the  use  of  one  or  more  of 
the  methods  now  to  be  examined  in  detail. 

21.  Modification  of  the  Topic. — The  topic,  as  stated  at 
the  outset,  may  undergo  modification  in  one  of  three  ways: 
by  limitation,  by  extension,  or  by  augmentation. 

1.  Limitation. — This  process  consists  simply  in  narrow- 
ing tlie  truth  or  application  of  a  statement  that,  for  the 
sake  of  simplicity  and  clearness,  has  been  put  more  broadly 
or  generally  than  facts  will  warrant.  Exceptions,  for  ex- 
ample, to  a  general  law,  or  conditions  under  which  the  op- 
eration of  the  law  remains  in  abeyance,  will  constitute  lim- 
itations of  the  paragraph  topic.     Example : 

But  what  is  "  equality  "  ?  When  the  founders  of  our  republic 
declared,  as  the  voice  of  the  modern  world,  that  "  all  men  are 
created  equal,"'  it  was  not  with  the  meaning  that  every  man  and 
woman  can  lift  just  five  hundred  pounds,  the  interpretation  once 
put  upon  us  by  the  dyspeptic  stomach  of  Thomas  Carlyle.  Wash- 
ington and  Jefferson,  Franklin  and  Paine,  were  too  busy  to  split 
hairs  with  sophists  and  pettifoggers.  All  men  stand  "  equal"  in 
the  "natural  rights"  of  "life  and  liberty,"  but  no  two  men  are 


78  TBB  PARAGHAPH. 

precisely  equal  in  the  capacity  to  improve  and  enjoy  those  endow- 
ments. That  is  the  American  tenet,  as  every  intelligent  Ameri- 
can understands  it. — Gordon  Clark. 

2.  Extension.- — This  process  is  the  reverse  of  limitation 
and  is  probably  much  rarer.  It  consists  in  taking  a  wider 
view  as  the  paragraph  proceeds,  or  in  adding  special  facts 
that  would  not  necessarily  fall  under  the  general  law.  In 
the  following  paragraph  Emerson  makes  a  statement  con- 
cerning the  value  of  books.  But  he  is  soon  led  to  include 
colleges  as  having  a  precisely  similar  value  with  similar 
qualifications. 

Of  course  there  is  a  portion  of  reading  quite  indispensahle  to  a 
wise  man.  History  and  exact  science  he  must  learn  by  laborious 
reading.  Colleges,  in  like  manner,  have  their  indispensable 
oflBce — to  teach  elements.  But  they  can  only  highly  serve  us 
when  they  aim  not  to  drill  but  to  create  ;  when  they  gather  from 
far  every  ray  of  various  genius  to  their  hospitable  halls,  and  by 
the  concentrated  fires  set  the  hearts  of  their  youth  on  flame. 
Thought  and  knowledge  are  natures  in  whicli  apparatus  and  y>vg- 
tension  avail  nothing.  Gowns  and  pecuniary  foundations,  though 
of  towns  of  gold,  can  never  countervail  the  least  sentence  or  syl- 
lable of  wit.  Forget  this,  and  our  American  colleges  will  recede 
in  their  {)ublic  importance,  whilst  they  grow  richer  every  year. 

3.  Augmetilation. — Many  matters  that  appertain  more 
or  less  closely  to  the  topic  and  yet  are  not  actually  included 
in  it  are  often  added.  Such  are  causes,  eifects,  corollaries, 
inferences,  notes,  and  all  sorts  of  remarks  by  the  way. 
I'hey  are,  for  the  most  part,  matters  that  do  not  rise  to 
sufficient  importance  to  call  for  separate  ])aragra])hs  and 
are  easily  disposed  of  in  this  manner.  'J'liey  may  even  con- 
stitute the  chief  bulk  of  the  paragraph  when  the  topic  itself 
is  so  simple  as  to  need  no  dwelling  upon  ;  although  if  the 
enumeration  of  causes  or  the  drawing  of  inferences  becomes 
long  or  elaborate  the  paragraph  may  take  on  the  argumon- 
tative  character  described  below.     The  topic  of  the  follow- 


ELUCIDATION  OF  THE  TOPIC.  79 

ing,  from  Matthew  Arnold,  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  sen- 
tence, namely,  that  Milton's  character  was  unsurpassably 
grand.  The  remainder  of  the  paragraph,  however,  is 
wholly  taken  ujd  with  a  discussion  of  how  Milton  came  by 
that  grandeur.  We  call  the  first  sentence  the  topic  be- 
cause its  relation  to  the  whole  essay  and  to  what  has  gone 
before  shows  it  to  be  the  important  point. 

As  a  man,  too,  not  less  than  as  a  poet,  Milton  has  a  side  of  un- 
surpassable grandeur.  A  master's  touch  is  the  gift  of  uature. 
Moral  qualities,  it  is  commonly  thought,  are  iu  our  own  power. 
Perhaps  the  germs  of  such  qualities  are  in  their  greater  or  less 
strength  as  much  a  part  of  our  natural  constitution  as  the  sense 
for  style.  The  range  open  to  our  own  will  and  i:)ower,  however, 
in  developing  and  establishing  them  is  evidently  much  larger. 
Certain  high  moral  dispositions  Milton  had  from  nature,  and  he 
sedulously  trained  and  developed  them  until  they  became  habits 
of  great  power. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  in  the  first  two  of  the  cases  given 
above  the  process  is  really  tliat  of  modifying  the  apparent 
topic  in  order  to  fix  the  true  one.  The  true  topic  can- 
not be  set  forth  iu  a  few  words,  and  accordingly  an  approx- 
imately true  one  is  temporarily  adopted  as  a  working  basis. 
In  the  third  case  the  topic  is  not  modified  internally  or  es- 
sentially— it  is  merely  overlaid  by  external  additions, 

22.  Elucidation  of  the  Topic. — A  second  method  by 
which  the  germ-idea  is  amplified  into  a  paragraph  is  eluci- 
dation. The  topic  reduced  to  the  terms  of  a  single  com- 
pact sentence,  even  when  most  precisely  stated  and  needing 
no  modification,  may  be  far  from  clear.  It  must  be  eluci- 
dated. There  are  three  prominent  methods  :  definition, 
division,  and  illustration. 

1.  In  definition  the  meaning  of  a  term  (or  terms,  if  the 
topic  is  in  the  form  of  a  proposition)  is  set  forth  after  any 
of  the  ordinary  methods  by  wliicli  we  endeavor  to  make 
sure   that   the  words  we   use  will    l;e   rightly   understood. 


80  THE  PARA0RAP3. 

Tlie  writer  interprets  the  abstract  by  the  concrete,  the  less 
familiar  by  the  more  familiar,  and  explains  in  just  what 
sense  he  desires  to  have  his  statements  taken.  From 
Edward  A.  Freeman's  ''Historical  Essays": 

National  prosperity,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  of  two  kinds, 
which  may  go  together  or  may  not.  A  state  may  be  great  in  the 
sense  of  beiug  powerful,  great  in  extent  and  population  ;  its 
counsels  may  be  listened  to  in  peace,  and  its  armies  may  be 
dreaded  in  war.  It  may  be  placed  beyond  all  fear  of  being  con- 
quered itself,  and  it  may  have  the  means  of  conquering  other 
states  if  it  chooses  to  use  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  may 
be  a  state  whose  physical  extent  and  power  could  not  successfully 
resist  some  of  its  neighbors,  whose  voice  is  never  beard  in 
diplomacy  except  with  regard  to  its  own  affairs,  and  yet  which 
may  be  thorouglily  free,  well  governed,  and  materially  prosperous 
within  its  own  borders.  It  may  well  be  better  off  in  all  these 
things  than  many  of  the  powers  which  in  physical  strength  far 
surpass  it.  Of  course  either  kind  of  prosperity  is  more  likely  to 
be  permanent  when  it  is  backed  up  by  the  other.  The  external 
power  of  a  state  cannot  last  if  it  is  thoroughly  ill  governed  and 
discontented  at  home.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  always  a  fear 
that  the  internal  prosperity  and  good  government  of  the  small 
state  may  be  put  an  end  to  by  its  conquest  by  some  greater  state. 

2.  Just  as  it  is  easier  to  master  a  subject  by  studying 
one  branch  of  it  at  a  time,  so  it  is  easier  to  grasp  tlie 
meaning  of  a  general  proposition  by  examining  its  bearings 
in  detail.  This  leads  to  the  process  of  amplifying  a  topic 
by  stating  it  both  as  a  whole  and  in  parts.  The  process 
may  be  termed  division.  Addison  {^Spectator,  No.  476) 
affords  a  good  illustration : 

Method  is  of  advantage  to  a  work,  both  in  respect  to  the  writer 
and  the  reader.  In  regard  to  the  first,  it  is  a  great  help  to  his 
invention.  When  a  man  has  planned  his  discourse  he  finds  a 
great  many  thoughts  rising  out  of  every  head  that  do  not  offer 
themselves  upon  the  general  survey  of  a  subject.  His  thoughts 
are  at  the  same  time  more  intelligible  and  better  discover  their 


ELUCIDATION  OF  THE  TOPIC.  81 

drift  and  meaning  when  they  are  placed  in  their  proper  lights 
and  follow  one  another  in  a  regular  series  than  when  they  are 
thrown  together  without  order  and  connection.  There  is  always 
an  obscurity  in  confusion,  and  the  same  sentence  that  would 
have  enlightened  the  reader  in  one  part  of  a  discourse  perplexes 
him  in  another.  For  the  same  reason,  likewise,  every  thought  in 
a  methodical  discourse  shows  itself  in  its  greatest  beauty,  as  the 
several  figures  in  a  piece  of  painting  receive  new  grace  from  their 
disposition  in  the  picture.  The  advantages  of  a  reader  from  a 
methodical  discourse  are  correspondent  witli  those  of  the  writer. 
He  comprehends  everything  easily,  takes  it  in  with  pleasure,  and 
retains  it  long. 

3.  Illustration  is  one  of  the  readiest  means  of  making  a 
topic  clear.  In  the  following  paragraphs  we  have  illustra- 
tion through  examples  of  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  to  be 
upheld,  particular  instances  of  the  general  law: 

Boys  are  always  more  or  less  inaccurate,  and  too  many,  or 
rather  the  majority,  remain  boys  all  their  lives.  When,  for 
instance,  I  hear  speakers  at  public  meetings  declaiming  about 
"large  and  enlightened  views,"  or  about  "freedom  of  con- 
science," or  about  "the  Gospel,"  or  any  other  popular  subject  of 
the  day,  I  am  far  from  denying  that  some  among  them  know 
what  they  are  talking  about ;  but  it  would  be  satisfactory,  in  a 
particular  case,  to  be  sure  of  the  fact ;  for  it  seems  to  me  that 
those  household  words  may  stand  in  a  man's  mind  for  a  some- 
thing or  other,  very  glorious  indeed,  but  very  misty,  pretty  much 
like  the  idea  of  "civilization"  which  floats  before  the  mental 
vision  of  a  Turk — that  is,  if,  when  he  interrupts  his  smoking  to 
utter  the  word,  he  condescends  to  reflect  whether  it  has  any 
meaning  at  all.  Again,  a  critic  in  a  periodical  dashes  off,  per- 
haps, his  praises  of  a  new  work  as  "talented,  original,  replete 
with  intense  interest,  irresistible  in  argument,  and,  in  the  best 
sense  of  the  word,  a  very  readable  book" — can  we  really  believe 
that  he  cares  to  attach  any  definite  sense  to  the  words  of  which 
he  is  so  lavish  ?  nay,  that,  if  he  had  a  habit  of  attaching  sense 
to  them,  he  could  ever  bring  himself  to  so  prodigal  and  whole- 
sale an  expenditure  of  them  ? — Newman  :  Lectures  on  Univei'sity 
Subjects, 


82  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

IL  is  now  thirty-eight  years  since  Charles  Robert  Darwin  pub- 
lished his  "Origin  of  Species."  That  work  produced  a  great 
agitation  in  the  upper  circles  of  human  thoaglit.  It  became  the 
source  of  a  vast  controversial  literature.  A  mere  catalogue  of 
the  books  to  which  the  Darwinian  hypothesis  gave  rise  is  enough 
to  astonish  the  inquirer.  Thirty-six  octavo  pages  in  Spengel's 
"Darwinische  Theorie"  are  occupied  with  the  simple  titles  of  the 
■works  elicited  by  the  "  Origin  of  Species."  Nearly  four  hundred 
guns,  great  and  small,  have  been  opened  from  the  philosophical 
redoubts  of  the  world  to  demolish  the  modest  book  which  offered 
the  first  strictly  rational  explanation  of  the  diversities  of  life  on 
our  globe. — J.   C.  Ridpath. 

In  the  following  the  illustration  takes  the  form  of  a 
parallel  or  analogous  case : 

The  effect  of  historical  reading  is  analogous,  in  many  respects, 
to  that  produced  by  foreign  travel.  The  student,  like  the  tourist, 
is  transported  into  a  new  state  of  society.  He  sees  new  fashions. 
He  hears  new  modes  of  expression.  His  mind  is  enlarged  by 
contemplating  the  wide  diversities  of  laws,  of  morals,  and  of 
manners.  But  men  may  travel  far  and  return  with  minds  as 
contracted  as  if  they  had  never  stirred  from  their  own  market- 
town.  In  the  same  manner  men  may  know  the  dates  of  many 
battles  and  the  genealogies  of  many  royal  houses  and  yet  be  no 
wiser.  Most  people  look  at  past  times  as  princes  look  at  foreign 
countries.  More  than  one  illustrious  stranger  has  landed  on  our 
island  amidst  the  shouts  of  a  mob,  has  dined  with  the  king,  has 
hunted  with  the  master  of  the  stag-lioiinds,  has  seen  the  Guards 
reviewed  and  a  knight  of  the  garter  installed,  has  cantered  along 
Regent  Street,  has  visited  St.  Paul's  and  noted  down  its  dimen- 
sions ;  and  has  then  departed,  thinking  that  he  has  seen  England. 
He  has,  in  fact,  seen  a  few  public  buildings,  public  men,  and 
l)ublic  ceremonies.  But  of  the  vast  and  complex  system  of  soci- 
ety, of  the  fine  shades  of  national  character,  of  the  practical 
operation  of  government  and  laws,  he  knows  nothing.  lie  who 
would  understand  these  things  rightly  must  not  confine  his  obser- 
vations to  palaces  and  solemn  days.  He  must  see  ordinary  men 
as  they  appear  in  their  ordinary  business  and  in  tlieir  ordinary 
pleasures.     He  must  mingle  in  the  crowds  of  the  exchange  and 


ARGUMENT.  83 

the  coffee-house.  He  must  obtaiu  admittauce  to  the  convivial 
table  and  the  domestic  hearth.  He  must  bear  with  vulgar  expres- 
sions. He  must  not  shrink  from  exploring  even  the  retreats  of 
misery.  He  who  wishes  to  understand  the  condition  of  mankind 
in  former  ages  must  proceed  on  the  same  principle.  If  he 
attends  only  to  public  transactions,  to  wars,  congresses,  and 
debates,  his  studies  will  be  as  unprofitable  as  the  travels  of  those 
imperial,  royal,  and  serene  sovereigns  who  form  their  judgment 
of  our  island  from  having  gone  in  state  to  a  few  fine 'sights,  and 
from  having  held  formal  conferences  with  a  few  great  officers. — 
Macaulay  :  On  History. 

23.  Argument. — We  come  to  the  argumentative  para- 
graph. In  this  there  is  an  endeavor  to  suj^port  the  truth 
of  the  topic  by  resort  to  the  methods  of  reasoning.  These 
methods  are  two,  deductive  and  inductive.  A  third  may 
be  added,  which  consists  in  a  simple  statement  of  reasons 
without  any  attempt  to  claim  for  tliem  a  rigorous  scientific 
cogency. 

1.  Deduction  consists  in  making  particular  applications 
of  a  general  law.  The  general  law  must  be  assumed,  and 
is  naturally  stated  at  the  outset.  The  jiaragraph  topic 
may  or  may  not  be  single,  according  as  the  stress  is. laid  on 
one  or  more  deductions.     Example  : 

Let  us  consider  this  matter  a  little.  Note  first  the  fact  that  a 
hypocrite  is  always  anxious  to  prove  how  good  he  is.  A  hypo- 
critical society  is  just  as  anxious — and  for  the  same  reason.  The 
individual  and  the  social  order  in  which  he  revolves  are  alike 
eager  to  get  the  credit  of  being  good  by  doing  a  little  to  alleviate 
the  evil  results  of  their  own  work.  A  burglar  may  very  well 
contribute  something  to  repair  the  safe.  Monte  Carlo  may  very 
well  make  a  fund  to  bury  the  suicides.  A  gentleman  of  the  pro- 
fession may  well  give  his  victim  enough  to  get  home  with.  The 
cashier  in  Canada  drops  a  liberal  and  holy  shilling  into  tlio  box 
and  sheds  a  tear.  The  chief  trustee  waters  his  sugar  stock  a 
hundred  per  cent  in  order  to  build  an  asylum.  Even  the  police- 
man sometimes  divides  with  the  poor  fellow  whom  he  has  pro- 
tected— though  this  is  rare  ! — J.  C.  KroPAXH, 


84  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

]\Iost  arguments  ending  with  tJierefore,  accordingly,  and 
similar  Avords  are  of  the  syllogistic  kind  and  so  come 
under  deduction.  The  syllogism  is  often  disguised  or 
incomplete,  one  of  the  premises  being  only  implied.  This 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  fragment  of  a  paragraph 
from  Macaulay's  "'  Samuel  Johnson": 

Johnson  had  failed,  not  because  his  mind  was  less  vigorous 
than  when  he  wrote  "  Rasselas  "  in  the  evenings  of  a  week,  but 
because  he  had  foolishly  chosen,  or  suffered  others  to  choose  for 
him,  a  subject  such  as  he  would  at  no  time  have  been  competent 
to  treat.  He  was  in  no  sense  a  statesman.  He  never  willingly 
read  or  thought  or  talked  about  affairs  of  state.  He  loved 
biography,  literary  liistory,  the  history  of  manners  ;  but  political 
history  was  positively  distasteful  to  him.  The  question  at  issue 
between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country  was  a  question 
about  which  he  had  really  nothing  to  say.  He  failed,  therefore, 
as  the  greatest  men  must  fail  when  tliey  attempt  to  do  that  for 
which  they  are  unfit. 

The  complete  argument,  expressed  in  syllogistic  form, 
would  be :  Only  statesmen  can  write  jjolitical  tracts  ;  John- 
son was  no  statesman  ;  therefore  his  "'  Taxation  Xo 
Tyranny "  Avas  a  failure.  For  further  discttssion  of  this 
matter  see  **A  Practical  Course  in  Com2~)Osition,"  pp. 
149-156. 

2.  Induction  is  the  opposite  process.  Particulars  are 
cited  first  and  the  general  law  follows  as  an  inference  from 
the  particulars.  This  is  the  strictly  logical  order.  In  the 
following  paragraph  it  will  be  noted  that  the  word  "de- 
duced" is  used.  But  the  process  of  reasoning  employed,  if 
it  be  anything  more  than  inference  from  analogy,  is,  both 
here  and  in  the  other  essay  to  Avhich  Emerson  refers,  really 
induction.  We  use  the  word  "  detluce ''  loosely  of  infer- 
ences of  all  kinds. 

The  eye  is  the  first  circle;  the;  horizon  whicii  it  forms  is  the 
second  ;  and  throughout  nature  thi.s  priiuaiy  figure  is  repeated 


ARGUMENT,  85 

without  end.  It  is  the  highest  emblem  in  the  cipher  of  the  world. 
St.  Augustine  describes  the  nature  of  God  as  a  circle  whose  centre 
was  everywhere  and  its  circumference  nowhere.  We  are  all  our 
lifetime  reading  the  copious  sense  of  this  first  of  forms.  One 
moral  we  have  already  deduced  in  considering  the  circular  or 
compensatory  character  of  every  human  action.  Another  analogy 
we  shall  now  trace,  that  every  action  admits  of  being  outdone. 
Our  life  is  an  apprenticeship  to  the  truth  that  around  every  circle 
another  can  be  drawn  ;  that  there  is  no  end  in  nature,  but  every 
end  is  a  beginning  ;  that  there  is  always  another  dawn  risen  on 
mid-noon,  and  under  every  deep  a  lower  deep  opens. — Emerson  : 
Circles. 

3.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  simple  statement  of 
reasons  from  the  processes  just  exemplified.  The  process 
is  often  practically  equivalent  to  induction,  differing  chiefly 
in  that  the  general  truth  is  put  forth  first  and  the  reasons 
adduced  afterward.  Or  the  reasons  may  bear,  not  directly 
upon  the  truth  of  the  statement,  which  may  be  particular 
as  well  as  general,  but  upon  the  writer's  belief  in  its  truth 
or  upon  his  motive  for  making  it.  They  may  consist  of 
mere  evidence  that  does  not  amount  to  conclusive  proof. 
They  may,  indeed,  be  concerned  wholly  with  motives  of 
action,  in  which  case  the  paragraph  loses  much  of  its 
argumentative  character.     Example : 

"I  am  very  sorry,"  said  Seithenyn,  "  that  you  see  things  in  a 
wrong  light ;  but  we  will  not  quarrel  for  three  reasons  :  first, 
because  you  are  the  son  of  the  king,  and  may  do  and  say  what 
you  please  without  any  one  having  the  right  to  be  displeased  ; 
second,  because  I  never  quarrel  with  a  guest,  even  if  he  grows 
riotous  in  his  cups  ;  third,  because  there  is  nothing  to  quarrel 
about ;  and  perhaps  that  is  the  best  reason  of  the  three  ;  or, 
rather,  the  first  is  the  best,  because  you  are  the  son  of  the  king  ; 
and  the  third  is  the  second — that  is,  the  second  best,  because 
thci'e  is  nothing  to  quarrel  about ;  and  the  second  is  nothing  to 
the  purpose,  because  thougli  guests  will  grow  riotous  in  their 
cups,  in  spite  of  my  good  orderly  example,  God  foi'bid  T  should 


86  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

say  that  is  the  case  with  you.  And  I  completely  agree  in  the 
truth  of  your  remark,  that  reason  speaks  iu  the  silence  of  wine." 
— Thomas  Love  Peacock  :    The  Misfortunes  of  Elpliin. 

24.  Enforcement, — The  topic  may  need  no  modification, 
it  may  be  clear,  it  may  be  trusted  to  stand  without  support, 
and  yet  the  writer  may  desire  to  impress  it  deeply  upon  his 
readers.  He  then  resorts  to  the  various  means  of  em- 
phasis: repetition,  contrast,  quotation. 

1.  It  is  evident  that  the  repetition  of  the  topic  in  other 
words  may  make  for  clearness,  but  its  primary  object  in 
most  cases  is  no  doubt  enforcement.  It  is  a  memorizing 
device,  compelling  the  reader  to  dwell  for  some  time  on  the 
same  idea. 

2.  Contrast  also  appeals  to  the  jDure  understanding. 
But  it  appeals  to  the  attentive  faculties  more.  It  arouses 
and  impresses.  It  is  the  rhetorician's  device.  Give  us  the 
concession,  the  opposing  fact,  the  limiting  fact,  first,  and 
we  shall  feel  more  deeply  the  main  contention.  Macaulay 
delighted  in  thus  presenting  the  contrary,  in  telling  what 
things  were  not  true  before  telling  what  things  were  true. 

3.  Quotation  enables  the  writer  to  corroborate  his  own 
statement  or  belief  by  the  testimony  of  another.  When  this 
testimony  comes  from  a  high  source  it  has  great  enforcing 
value. 

The  following  jiaragraph  from  ^Matthew  Arnold's  ''Falk- 
land "  illustrates  all  three  of  the  above  methods  of  enforce- 
ment. The  topic  is  The  English  are  not  hencvolent.  This 
is  enforced  by  repetition,  contrast,  and  quotation.  It 
chances  in  this  case  tliat  the  quotation  does  not  accom- 
pany any  affirmation  of  the  author's  own,  but  we  feel  easily 
that  it  has  his  endorsement. 

"The  English  are  just,  but  not  amiable."  A  wcll-1)red  French- 
man, who  has  recently  travelled  in  India,  and  who  publishes  in 


ENFORCEMENT.  87 

the  Revne  des  Deux  Mondes  an  interesting  account  of  what  be  saw 
and  heard  there,  ends  with  this  criticism.  The  criticism  conveys, 
he  says,  as  to  the  English  and  their  rule,  the  real  mind  of  the 
best  informed  and  most  intelligent  of  the  natives  of  India  with 
whom  he  conversed.  Tliey  admitted  the  great  superiority  of  the 
English  rule  in  India  to  every  other  which  had  preceded  it.  They 
admitted  the  good  intentions  of  the  English  rule  ;  they  admitted 
its  activity,  energy,  incorruptibility,  justice.  Still,  the  final  im- 
pression was  this :  something  wanting  in  the  English,  something 
which  they  were  not.  Les  Anglais  sont  Justes,  mais  pas  bons. 
"  The  English  are  just,  but  not  kind  and  good." 

One  thing  to  be  carefully  guarded  against  in  developing  a 
topic  by  repetition  is  the  sort  of  repetition  that  avails  nothing 
for  either  clearness  or  force,  giving  only  a  sense  of  iteration 
and  rednndance.  Thus:  "The  modern  bicycle  is  fast, 
easy-running,  and  safe.  On  it  one  can  easily  cover  many 
miles  a  day."  If  a  specific  number  of  miles  were  men- 
tioned the  second  sentence  would  have  some  justification. 
Or  again:  "  The  system  of  discipline  in  this  high  school  is 
simple  enough  for  anybody  to  understand.  There  is  noth- 
ing complicated  about  the  discipline."  Or:  "A  thing  of 
beauty  is  a  joy  forever.  An  object  of  loveliness  is  a  source 
of  perpetual  delight."  Bare  iteration  of  thought,  however, 
will  often  be  tolerated  if  by  simpler  or  more  concrete 
language  the  thought  can  be  made  at  once  clearer  and 
stronger.  We  are  not  guilty  of  verbosity  Avhen  we  say, 
"  Aristocracies  are  inaccessible  to  ideas — their  eyes  are 
turned  from  the  light."  There  must  be  a  forward  move- 
ment somewhere — in  intelligibility,  in  vividness,  in  vigor — 
with  every  repetition.  Usually  the  repetition  of  the  allow- 
able kind  will  be  found  to  be  only  partial — there  is  some 
forward  movement  in  the  thought  itself.  Take  several 
examples  further: 

A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever  : 

Its  loveliness  increases  ;  it  will  never 


88  THE  PABAQRAPR. 

Pass  into  nothingness  ;  but  still  will  keep 

A  bower  quiet  for  us,  and  a  sleep 

Full  of  sweet  dreams,  and  health,  and  quiet  breathing. 

— Keats  :  Endymion. 
By  the  end  of  1837  Cooper  had  pretty  sedulously  improved 
every  opportunity  of  making  himself  unpopular.  His  criticisms 
had  been  distributed  with  admirable  impartiality.  Few  persons 
or  places  could  complain  that  they  had  been  overlooked.  The 
natural  satisfaction  that  any  one  would  have  felt  in  contemplating 
the  2-)unishment  inflicted  upon  his  friend  or  neighbor  was  utterly 
marred  by  the  consideration  of  the  outrage  done  to  himself. — 
LouNSBURY  :  J.  F.  Cooper. 

Paragraphs  of  the  types  described  above  are  to  be  found, 
as  a  rule,  only  in  the  more  severe  forms  of  discourse.  In 
narration,  description,  and  simple  exposition  much  looser 
types  i^revail.  In  them,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  we  have 
not  usually  the  development  of  a  topic,  but  a  mere  group 
of  facts  that  sustain  some  obvious  temporal,  spatial,  or  other 
relation  among  themselves.  The  paragraph  is  thus  often 
more  like  a  composition  in  miniature,  having  a  subject, 
ratlier  than  a  topic,  and  enumerating  various  facts  or  con- 
taining various  statements  that  bear  upon  this  subject,  but 
that  are  so  simple  in  themselves  as  to  need  no  special  elab- 
oration. If  such  a  paragraph  will  fit  anywhere  into  tlie 
above  scheme  it  will  fall  under  one  of  the  divisions  num- 
bered 3;  augmentation  in  particular  may  be  stretched  to 
cover  a  great  many  cases  that  are  hard  to  classify.  Tlie 
following  may  be  taken  as  a  paragraph  of  tliis  type.  Its 
subject  is  found  in  the  first  five  words.  We  might  look 
upon  the  method  of  development  as  partly  division  uiid 
partly  repetition,  but  it  seems  better  to  consider  the  para- 
graph a  mere  group  of  facts,  constructed  after  a  plan  char- 
acteristic of  the  less  abstruse  styles  of  exposition. 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  follows  immediately  after  the  irriga- 
tion.   The  soil  must  be  cultivated  when  it  has  dried  sufficiently 


CRITICISM.  89 

beyond  the  pasty,  sticky  condition  of  mud,  and  while  it  is  still 
free  from  a  liardened  crust.  The  rancher  strives  to  work  the 
soil  when  it  is  in  a  condition  intermediate  between  these  ex- 
tremes. Sandy  soil,  which  lacks  the  hardening  qualities  of  adobe, 
can  be  cultivated  much  sooner  or  left  longer  than  other  soils. 
The  farmer  may  to  some  extent  cultivate  it  when  he  desires. 
The  adobe,  in  marked  contrast,  is  a  soil  containing  much  clay 
and  dries  rapidly  in  sunlight.  It  requires  cultivation  when  it  has 
reached  the  critical  condition,  and  then  only  can  be  worked  with 
ease.  Left  a  day  too  long  it  will  bake  hard  as  brick.  The  whole 
irrigation  area  must  therefore  be  covered  by  the  workman  in  one 
day. 

Let  us  now  take  at  random,  by  way  of  criticism,  some 
paragraphs  from  a  book  or  a  magazine  article  and  see  liow 
they  are  constructed.  We  must  be  prepared  beforehand  to 
find  two  or  three  methods  employed  in  the  same  paragraph, 
and  we  must  be  prepared  to  find  the  methods  often  obscure 
and  hard  to  classify.  Faulty  construction,  too,  we  shall 
find  in  abundance;  for,  though  the  principles  of  construc- 
tion that  have  been  given  are  not  theoretical,  but  are  drawn 
from  observed  practice,  the  practice  is  tliat  of  the  most 
careful  writers,  and  very  few  writers  indeed  can  be  held  up 
as  models  in  this  particular.  Tlie  following  is  a  part  (be- 
ginning immediately  after  the  introductory  paragraph)  of 
an  article  in  The  Arena  for  June,  1897,  entitled  "  The 
Ultimate  Trust-cure  " : 

Taxation  has  always  been  sporadic  and  arbitrary,  a  different 
thing  in  diiierent  states  and  nations,  and  dependent  on  the 
wisdom,  or  on  the  follies,  whims,  and  momentary  interests,  of 
rulers  and  legislators.  But,  if  there  is  any  right  of  taxation,  any 
reason  for  it,  some  general  principle  must  centre  the  whole  sub- 
ject and  render  it  capable  of  reduction,  first  to  perfect  ethics, 
and  next  to  perfect  method.     What  is  this  principle  ? 

When  the  great  Greek,  Aristotle,  founded  and  named  the 
science  of  "economics"  he  saw,  at  the  first  glance  of  analysis, 
that  all  property  rests  on  "  natural  wealth  " — that  natural  wealth 


90  THE  PARAGBAPK 

is  the  source  and  raw  material  of  all  human  productions  and 
possessions.  In  designating  such  wealth  he  summed  it  up  as 
"  the  bounty  of  nature."  What  Aristotle,  the  first  political  econo- 
mist, called  the  bounty  of  nature  Henry  George,  in  recent  years, 
has  inadequately  termed  "land." 

Now  the  bounty  of  nature— the  earth,  the  water,  the  air— was 
not  made  by  any  man  or  stock  company.  God  made  it — and 
made  it  as  the  only  means  of  sustaining  his  creatures  made  with 
it.  So,  necessarily  and  self-evidently,  those  creatures  have  a 
natural  right  in  that  gift.  Or,  as  Thomas  Jefferson  said,  "the 
earth  belongs  in  usufruct  to  the  living." 

Henry  George,  especially  in  his  remarkable  book  "Progress 
and  Poverty,"  has  illustrated  and  elaborated  this  natural  relation 
of  man  to  matter— this  bottom  fact  of  political  economy— from 
almost  every  conceivable  aspect.  I  agree  with  Aristotle,  with 
Mr.  George,  with  Mill,  Spencer,  and  the  rest  of  the  world's  pro- 
found thinkers,  in  their  finding.  But  here  let  me  deny  a  bit.  I 
deny  it  is  merely  a  "theory."  It  is  a  discover;/.  It  is  a  latv— as 
much  so  as  the  law  of  gravitation. 

In  one  sense,  and  a  very  practical  one,  there  is  no  dissent  from 
it.  There  is  no  form  of  government  not  basing  its  reason  for 
existence  on  the  claim  of  standing  for  the  best  common  interests 
of  the  people  governed.  There  is  no  system  of  political  economy 
not  basing  the  tenures  to  property— the  laws,  the  practical  ethics 
of  the  matter — on  the  same  foundation.  England  distinctly 
asserts,  at  the  present  moment,  through  her  most  commonplace 
and  conservative  authorities,  that  her  whole  wealth  belongs  to 
her  whole  people  ;  hence  her  right  to  call  on  every  subject  to 
defend  it.  She  merely  adds  that  the  methods  she  sanctions  and 
enforces  for  the  distribution  of  wealth  arc  the  best  she  knows  for 
the  general  welfare.  We  find  all  that  nowadays  filtered  down 
into  so  general  a  receptacle  as  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica." 

The  first  paragraph  is  slightly  argumentative  (deductive), 
leading  up  to  its  topic  in  the  conclusion  that  "  some  gen- 
eral principle  must  underlie  taxation."  And  the  theme 
of  the  entire  essay,  or  of  some  large  section  of  it,  is  found 
in  the  inquiry,  'MVhat  is  this  principle?"     The  topic  of 


CRITICISM.  91 

the  second  paragraph  is,  "  All  property  rests  on  natural 
wealth."  This  statement  is  supported,  in  the  same  sen- 
tence in  which  it  occurs,  by  an  appeal  to  authority  (quota- 
tion). But  beyond  that  the  topic  as  a  whole  is  not  dealt 
with.  The  two  remaining  sentences  are  occupied  with 
defining,  in  ^he  words  of  others,  one  term  of  the  topic, 
"natural  wealth."  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  last  sen- 
tence the  word  '  •■  inadequately  "  raises  a  point  which  seems 
to  require  explanation.  But  the  paragraph  closes  without 
offering  any  explanation.  The  explanation,  so  far  as  we 
get  one,  comes  in  the  third  paragraph — almost  incidentally, 
it  would  appear — in  the  parenthesis  "the  earth,  the  air, 
the  water."  This  paragraph  begins  with  enforcing  a  state- 
ment by  presenting  the  contrary.  It  proceeds  as  argu- 
ment, and  its  topic  is  found  in  the  deduction  that  "  men 
have  a  natural  right  in  the  bounty  of  nature."  This  ap- 
pears to  be  nothing  else  than  a  repetition,  in  different 
words,  of  the  toj)ic  of  the  second  jiaragrajih.  Very  clearly 
the  second  and  third  paragraphs  should  have  been  made 
into  one.  Then  we  should  have  had  an  orderly  and  com- 
plete development  of  the  topic  through  definition  and 
argument,  closing  with  an  enforcement  of  the  same  by 
quotation  from  Thomas  Jefferson.  But  now  we  note  in 
the  first  sentence  of  the  fourth  paragraph  further  enforce- 
ment by  repetition  of  the  same  topic:  "this  natural  rela- 
tion of  man  to  matter — this  bottom  fact  of  political  econ- 
omy." The  repetition,  however,  is  only  incidental  to  a 
statement  telling  us  where  we  can  get  illustrations  of  the 
,  truth  of  the  topic.  But  illustrations,  or  brief  references  to 
them,  should  go  with  the  topic.  Therefore  this  sentence 
also  should  have  been  incorporated  with  what  precedes. 
Some  change  in  position  or  some  change  in  the  wording 
might  be  needed  to  make  it  fit,  but  it  logically  belongs 
there.      "I  agree  with  Aristotle"  properly  begins  a  new 


92  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

topic.  We  have  contrast  first  and  finally  the  topic,  '•  Tliis 
natural  relation  of  man  to  matter  is  a  law."  The  topic  of 
the  next  paragraph  is  stated  at  the  outset,  and  is  followed 
by  particulars  and  an  example. 

Let  us  look  now  at  several  specimens  of  paragraphs  as 
they  are  presented  by  students  of  composition.  In  an 
essay  on  "  Superstitions  Concerning  the  Moon "  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  is  found : 

Once  there  used  to  be  a  nursery  story  told  about  the  man  in 
the  moon  and  his  wife,  which  said  that  the  man  lived  on  that 
side  of  the  moon  which  can  be  seen,  and  his  wife,  who  was  never 
seen,  lived  on  the  other. 

The  writer  is  told  that  this  is  not  a  satisfactory  para- 
graph. There  is  only  one  sentence.  There  is  no  apparent 
growth,  no  development  of  a  thought,  no  sign  of  orderly 
construction.  Tlie  writer  takes  the  ill-written  sentence 
apart,  presents  tlio  ideas  singly,  and  adds  at  the  end  a  hit 
of  gratuitous  speculation  which  enables  him  to  come  round 
to  the  beginning.  Thus,  with  a  slight  change  and  a  slight 
addition,  he  makes,  through  elucidation  by  particulars 
and  through  augmentation,  an  acceptable  paragrapli: 

There  is  an  old  nursery  tale  about  the  man  in  the  moon  and 
his  wife.  The  man  lives  on  the  side  of  the  moon  th:it  is  turned 
towards  us.  His  wife  lives  on  the  other.  Presumably  they  live 
in  harmony,  but  t^he  nursery  tale  fails  to  tell. 

Another  student  presents  the  following  essay: 

The  Camera  and  Its  Use. 

In  the  last  few  years  the  camera  has  undergone  a  great 
change.  From  the  bulky,  clumsy  machine  which  existed  twenty 
years  ago  we  notice  a  gradual  improvement  in  its  construction 
down  to  the  present  time.  Numerous  inventions  have  been 
made,  so  that  the  camera  of  to-day  presents  an  instrument  both 
durable  and  convenient  for  the  amateur's  use. 

The  camera  has  also  been  made  less  expensive  by  substituting 


CRITICISM.  93 

cheaper  metal,  tlius  introducing  the  art  of  photography  to  that 
class  of  people  who  were  unable  to  indulge  in  such  luxury  in 
former  times. 

The  camera  is  both  an  instructive  and  entertaining  instrument. 
In  the  hands  of  an  experienced  person,  who  has  studied  pho- 
tography as  an  art,  it  affords  no  end  of  instruction.  It  brings 
him  in  contact  with  nature.  He  begins  to  appreciate  landscape, 
and,  furthermore,  it  trains  his  perception  for  beautiful  scenery 
and  artistic  groupings.  Another  instructive  field  which  is  open 
for  him  is  the  science  of  chemistry,  with  which  he  has  to  deal 
in  the  process  of  finishing  pictures. 

The  practical  uses  of  a  camera  are  manifold.  The  tourist  who 
spends  a  few  of  his  precious  years  in  travelling  will  find  a  camera 
of  indispensable  value.  Also,  a  student  who  is  studying  abroad 
will,  no  doubt,  appreciate  the  necessity  of  a  camera  ;  so  that  in 
later  years  he  can  travel  over  the  same  route  in  imagination, 
and  whatever  has  been  effaced  from  his  memory  will  again  be 
vivified  by  merely  glancing  over  his  collection  of  camera-pictures. 

One  would  say,  from  a  glance  at  the  beginnings  of  para- 
graphs, that  the  essay  promises  well.  But  examination 
will  discover  it  to  be  faulty,  and  will  discover  that  its  faults 
are  of  precisely  the  kind  that  can  be  remedied  by  attention 
to  the  principles  of  paragraph  development.  The  essay 
opens  with  a  general  statement.  The  second  sentence  pro- 
ceeds to  make  this  more  particular,  but  instead  of  follow- 
ing up  '-'bulky,  clumsy,"  with  "light,  portable,"  or  some 
such  words,  the  writer  is  content  with  "gradual  improve- 
ment," which  is  little  more  definite  than  anything  in  the 
first  sentence.  And  then,  instead  of  proceeding  to  still 
more  specific  details  and  telling  us  just  how  bulky  the 
camera  formerly  was  and  just  how  light  it  has  come  to  be, 
he  speaks  once  more  in  vague  terms  of  "numerous  inven- 
tions" and  the  resulting  "convenience."  As  to  "dura- 
bility," that  is  a  new  attribute  and  a  somewhat  unexpected 
one;  the  only  relation  of  durability  to  lightness  is  that  of 
contrast,  and  the  contrast  is  not  brought  out.     The  second 


94  THE  PARAGRAPS. 

paragraph  clearly  belongs  with  the  first.  •' Inexpensive- 
ness"  is  bat  another  item.  It  might  have  been  expanded 
into  proportions  that  would  warrant  a  separate  paragraph, 
but  it  is  discussed  here  in  a  single  sentence.  And,  once 
more,  the  sentence  does  not  succeed  in  giving  any  very 
specific  or  concrete  details.  "Cheaper  metal"  is  only  a 
makeshift  of  ignorance.  Paragraph  third  begins  with  a 
good  topic.  But  the  topic  is  adhered  to  very  loosely. 
''Instruction"  reappears,  after  its  presentation  in  the  first 
sentence,  as  a  sort  of  training  in  esthetic  appreciation, 
which  can  scarcely  be  called  instruction.  And  "enter- 
tainment," unless  it  be  involved  in  that  same  appreciation, 
does  not  reappear  at  all.  The  last  paragraph  is  open  to 
the  same  objections.  The  writer  is  constantly  promising 
something  definite,  something  specific,  but,  except  at  the 
very  end,  he  continues  to  revert  to  such  generalities  as 
"indispensable  value"  and  "necessity." 

Contrast  with  the  above  the  method  of  a  writer  like 
Macaulay : 

At  Oxford  Johnson  resided  during  about  three  years.  He  was 
poor,  even  to  raggcdness  ;  and  his  appearance  excited  a  mirth 
and  a  pity  which  were  equally  intolerable  to  his  haughty  spirit. 
He  was  driven  from  the  quadrangle  of  Christ  Church  by  the 
sneering  looks  which  the  members  of  that  aristocratical  society 
cast  at  the  holes  in  his  shoes.  Some  charitable  person  placed  a 
new  pair  at  his  door,  but  he  spurned  them  away  in  a  fury. 

Poverty  at  once  takes  on  the  concrete  form  of  "  raggcd- 
ness," and  this  becomes  specific  in  "holes  in  his  shoes." 
Even  Oxford  is  narrowed  to  "'  the  quadrangle  of  Christ 
Church."  "Mirth"  and  "pity"  and  "  haughty  spirit  " 
all  reappear  in  concrete  forms.  There  are  no  thoughtless 
or  reckless  utterances  here,  no  promises  unfulfilled. 
Macaulay  always  writes  with  his  eye  on  his  pen.  He  is 
fully  conscious  of  wliat  he  is  going  to  say,  wholly  mindful 


CRITICISM.  95 

of  what  he  has  said  ah-eady.     Thus  every  word  becomes 
organic,  charged  with  meaning,  tingling  with  sympathy. 

Take,  for  further  study,  another  example.  It  is  only  an 
excerpt,  but  it  is  fairly  representative  of  the  best  popular 
exposition  to  be  found  in  our  magazines  to-day. 

Originally  the  demand  for  high  buildings  presented  a  purely 
financial  problem.  Owners  of  property  in  the  business  parts  of 
cities  found  they  could  rent  more  space  than  their  buihiings  of 
two,  three,  and  four  stories  contained,  and  they  wanted  new 
buildings  of  five  or  six  stories,  or  additional  floors  above  the  old 
roof.  To  finance  this  operation  was  easy,  and  any  intelligent  car- 
penter or  mason  could  do  the  job.  After  awhile,  however,  the 
need  in  the  larger  cities  for  space  in  the  centi-es  where  business 
was  most  progressive  and  profitable  passed  beyond  the  capacity 
of  the  six-story  buildings,  and  a  better  man  than  the  master  mason 
was  needed. 

"Down-town,"  as  the  great  city  market-places  are  called,  be- 
came overcrowded.  It  could  grow  and  expand  as  a  whole,  but 
certain  parts  of  it  could  not  move.  Some  lines  of  business  had 
taken  possession  of  gi'ound  space  enough  to  accommodate  them 
when  they  settled,  and  others  grouped  themselves  close  around 
till  they  hemmed  one  another  in.  Then  traditions  and  the  habits 
of  customers  fixed  the  limits  more  and  more  definitely,  making 
changes  almost  impossible.  To  cross  a  street  miglit  mean  failure, 
and  tlie  turning  of  a  corner  would  not  be  thought  of.  The  whole- 
sale dry-goods  firms  of  New  Yoi'k  succeeded  in  getting  out  of 
Cedar,  William,  and  Pine  streets,  but  it  was  done  with  fear  and 
trembling  after  years  of  hesitation,  and  nobody  was  certain  for 
many  months  after  the  moving  that  a  fatal  mistake  had  not  been 
made.  Every  effort  of  the  jewellers  of  Maiden  Lane  to  leave  their 
street  has  been  unsuccessful.  Their  rent  is  high,  the  location  is 
not  convenient,  and  other  businesses  would  pay  well  to  be  so  near 
the  financial  centre,  but  the  jewellers  are  afraid  their  customers 
would  not  find  them  elsewhere  than  in  Maiden  Lane,  and  that 
street  as  an  address  is  invaluable  to  the  firm  that  writes  to  the 
country  with  it  on  its  letter-head.  Then,  for  a  last  example,  there 
is  "Wall  Street" — how  far  can  the  stock-brokers  go  from  Wall 
Street  ? 


96  THE  PARA&RAPH. 

Confined  on  all  sides  round,  the  only  way  out  was  up.  Limited 
as  to  the  ground,  business  sought  the  air.  It  had  to  be  done;  but 
how  ?  That  was  the  question.  To  pile  more  stories  on  the  sixth 
was  useless,  since  no  one  would  climb  up  to  thera;  the  young 
brokers  and  lawyers  might  be  willing  to  do  it,  but  their  customers 
would  not  follow.  Tiie  problem  became  mechanical,  and  the 
financier  and  the  architect  were  as  helpless  as  the  mason. 

The  passenger-elevator  was  the  solution.  It  was  a  clumsy  hoist 
moved  by  a  hand-windlass  when  inventive  genius  began  to  Btudy 
its  possibilities,  and  no  one  could  have  foreseen  in  any  of  its 
earlier  forms  that  it  was  to  be  to  modern  building  what  the 
steam-engine  is  to  transportation,  a  revolutionary  agent.  Steam- 
power  was  applied  to  it  in  1866.  The  result  was  an  apparatus 
with  so  many  faults  that  it  presented  clearly  all  the  necessities  for 
success.  It  was  slow,  jerky,  and  dangerous.  To  overcome  these 
defects  the  experimenters  turned  to  hydraulic  power,  in  the 
water-balance  elevator,  A  car  was  carried  up  by  the  weight  of  a 
water-vessel  filled  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  and  was  let  down  by 
emptying  the  water  at  the  bottom.  Speed  and  smoothness  of 
motion  were  thus  secured,  but  the  control  was  doubtful,  and 
though  the  accidents  that  occurred  were  not  fatal  they  were  wet 
and  disagreeable.  Absolute  safety  was  first  achieved  in  the  direct- 
acting  ram  hydraulic  elevators ;  but  they,  too,  were  slow  and,  for 
high  structures,  impracticable,  since  the  cylinder  had  to  be  sunk 
as  deep  below  ground  as  the  shaft  rose  high  above  it.  Having 
safety,  however,  the  makers  clung  to  the  hydraulic  power  till  they 
eliminated  one  by  one  all  the  defects  of  their  machine.  Mean- 
while electricity  was  applied  successfully,  and  now  there  are  sev- 
eral sj'stems  that  satisfy  all  the  requirements  of  the  highest 
buildings  and  the  most  impatient  of  human  beings. 

With  the  elevator,  long  before  it  was  perfected,  rose  all  that 
made  the  problem  of  high  building — high  rents,  high  prices  for 
ground  space,  and  high  hopes.  There  was  great  risk  in  the  first 
application  of  the  elevator  to  the  office  building,  but  it  is  capital 
that  is  timid,  not  the  financiers,  the  brains  that  handle  it ;  they 
are  cautious,  but  daring.  They  saw  that  the  new  device  for  lifting 
passengers  to  the  unbuilt  upper  stories  brought  the  unclaimed 
space  above  the  costly  ground  within  easy  reach,  but  no  one 
could  foresee  how  the  tenants  and  their  customers  would  take  this 


CRITICISM.  97 

mode  of  transit,  nor  was  there  any  basi'j  for  estimating  the  rents 
that  would  be  paid.  The  whole  financial  question  rested  on  these 
unknown  elements. 

EXERCISES   ON   SECTIONS   20-24. 

1.  Make  a  study  of  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  Aj^pendix  C,  and 
write  out  a  criticism  of  the  methods  of  development  they  illus- 
trate, somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  criticism  of  "The  Ulti- 
mate Trust-cure"  on  page  90.  The  best  paragraphs  for  this 
purpose  are  to  be  found  in  the  selections  from  Macaulay,  Hux- 
ley, and  Curtis.  The  paragraphs  in  the  magazine  articles 
referred  to  under  10,  exercise  3,  may  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

2.  Point  out  defects  in  the  construction  of  the  following  para- 
graphs :  Appendix  B  ix  5,  xi  3,  xiii  3. 

3.  Develop  a  few  of  the  following  topics  into  complete  para- 
graphs by  any  of  the  methods  described.  Of  course  several 
methods  may  be  used  in  the  same  paragraph.  Treat  the  topic  just 
as  if  it  were  a  statement  of  your  own,  and  make  it  an  integral 
part  of  the  paragraph.  It  will  most  naturally  stand  first,  al- 
though it  is  well  sometimes  to  practise  variety  in  this  matter.  It 
may  be  necessary  also  now  and  then  to  change  the  form  of  the 
topic.  For  a  few  of  the  topics  a  method  of  develojjment  is 
indicated. 

Nature  keeps  her  ugliness  out  of  sight  (Limitation.  Illustra- 
tion.) 

Benjamin  Franklin  may  be  justly  styled  The  First  American. 
(Definition.     Statement  of  reasons.     Augmentation.) 

We  know  better  than  we  do.     (Induction.) 

Forbid  football,  you  restore  hazing.     (Deduction.     Illustration.) 

Advertising  pays.     (Repetition.     Contrast.     Illustration. ) 

A  triangle  is  a  plane  figure,  having  three  sides  and  three  angles. 
(Extension.     Division.) 

Pain  has  its  uses. 

Some  people  are  afraid  to  laugh. 

My  uncle  is  a  charming  letter-writer. 

The  description  of  the  chari«'t-race  is  the  most  fascinating  chapter 
in  "  Ben  Hur." 


98  THE  rARAOEAPH. 

The  liardest  woods  are  the  slowest  growers. 

Character  is  compounded  of  liabits. 

Where  there  is  a  will  there  is  a  way,  says  the  old  proverb.       Bui 

You  cannot  fool  all  of  the  people  all  of  the  time. 

I  believe  in  civil  service  reform. 

Every  head  of  a  department,  if  he  is  not  afraid  to  tell  the  whole 
truth,  will  declare  that  he  could  secure  better  help  for  his  own  office 
than  can  be  selected  for  him  by  a  civil-service  examining-board.     • 

Public  officers  should  be  well  paid. 

Public  officers  should  be  selected  from  men  who  can  afford  to  give 
their  services  gratis.  . 

Grant  was  a  lover  of  horses. 

Astounding  as  the  statement  may  seem,  there  are  few  people  to-day 
who  know  how  to  read. 

Artists,  unfortunately,  are  but  human,  and  most  of  them  depend 
upon  art  for  their  daily  bread  and  butter. 

It  is  not  altogether  absurd  to  hold  that  men  will  grow  better  as 
they  grow  wiser. 

The  world  moves. 

The  poet's  Bohemia  is  a  desert  land. 

His  wit  is  like  a  pistol-shot. 

The  newspaper  continues  to  encroach  upon  the  magazine. 

Picturesque  is  the  word  to  describe  the  Japanese. 

Superstitions  are  tenacious. 

He  was  absurdly  short  for  his  girth. 

America  must  lay  claim  to  the  humming-bird. 

The  felling  of  great  trees  requires  care  and  some  skill. 

Of  the  two  species  of  poplar  the  yellow  is  the  most  important  for 
the  trades  and  arts. 

Who  is  not  deeply  moved  by  his  first  sight  of  the  sea? 

We  may  spoil  our  style  by  paying  too  much  attention  to  it. 

The  kitchen  was  small  but  tidy. 

Mrs.  Grundy  has  had  more  influence  in  shaping  the  history  of  the 
world  than  any  Caesar. 

Young  people  must  have  diversion. 

There  is  no  better  school  of -honesty  than  modern  business  life. 

The  word  lease  is  used  in  two  senses. 

A  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link. 

The  different  meanings  of  the  word  f/raviiy  are  familiar;  the  dif- 
ferent meanings  of  the  word  levity  are  not. 


UNITY.  99 

It  is  not  essential  to  tlie  healthy   growth  of  a  tree  that  it  bear 
fruit. 

The  execution  of  Queen  Mary  raised  the  hopes  of  Philip. 

Any  boy  can  make  a  "  sling-shot." 

The  dolls  were  to  have  a  party  that  day. 

The  student  has  particular  need  to  take  good  care  of  his  eyes. 

Self-trust  is  the  essence  of  heroism. 


III.     LAWS. 

25.  Unity. — A  paragraph  sliould  have  one,  and  only  one, 
prominent  theme  or  subject  of  tliought.  If  it  contain 
details  there  must  be  something  central  binding  tliese  de- 
tails together — some  point  of  time  or  sj^ace,  some  obvious 
relation:  the  details  must  constitute  a  natural  or  a  logical 
group.  Thus  two  things  may  stand  in  the  same  paragraph 
l^rovided  one  is  there  only  for  the  sake  of  tlie  other,  or  pro- 
vided both  are  there  only  for  the  sake  of  the  similarity  or 
the  contrast  they  exhibit. 

Such  is  tlie  law  of  paragraph  unity.  It  was  already 
foreseen  in  the  construction  of  the  outline.  It  was  in- 
volved in  the  very  definition  of  a  paragraj)]).  It  was  found 
to  be  fundamental  to  paragraph  division  and  construction. 
We  need  pause  here  only  to  give  it  the  emphasis  of  this 
formal  statement  and  of  special  illustrations. 

One  of  the  essential  features  of  a  well-regulated  shoe-factory  is 
good  light.  Every  person  engaged  in  the  making  of  a  shoe  must 
ha  skilled  in  his  particular  line.  The  least  bit  of  carelessness  on 
the  part  of  one  operative  may  spoil  the  work  of  a  hundred. 

The  writer  of  the  above  paragraph  has  ignored  the  law 
of  unity.  The  reader  is  much  surprised  to  find  no  further 
reference  to  "good  light  "after  the  first  sentence.  The 
paragraph  simply  falls  apart — ^it  is  no  true  paragraph  at  all. 
Take  another  example: 


100  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

The  Po-ho-nee-chees  were  a  wealthy  tribe  and  could  present  to 
a  chief  of  so  great  renown  robes  of  squirrel-  and  ral)bit-skin,  and 
the  very  rare  mantle  made  from  the  skin  of  the  water-fowl, 
with  every  feather  unruffled  and  its  native  brilliancy  unim- 
paired. 

This  tribe  was  also  famous  for  great  skill  in  making  musical 
instruments.  The  thread  used  by  them  was  much  sought  for,  and 
was  twisted  from  the  inner  bark  of  milkweed. 

Here  in  the  second  i^aragrajth  we  are  much  puzzled.  We 
have  a  riglit  to  expect  unity.  AVe  try  to  make  out,  there- 
fore, that  the  tliread  spoken  of  was  used  somehow  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  musical  instruments.  If  so,  well  and 
good;  only  we  should  like  to  have  it  made  clear  just  how  the 
thread  was  used,  wliether  as  strings  or  in  some  other  way. 
But  it  seems  more  likely  that  no  such  connection  was  in- 
tended. The  thread  is  only  one  more  thing  for  which 
the  tribe  was  famous,  and  bears  no  closer  relation  to  musical 
instruments  than  to  squirrel-skin  robes,  perhaps  not  so 
close.  The  two  things  should  have  been. separated,  then, 
or,  better  still,  the  two  should  not  have  been  set  off  from 
the  first  paragraph,  but  all,  witli  some  changes  of  Avording, 
sliould  liave  been  run  into  a  single  i:)aragrap]i  enumerating 
in  detail  the  various  things  that  testified  to  the  Po-ho-nee- 
chees'  wealtli  and  fame.  But  at  best  Ave  can  only  guess 
what  was  intended,  for  the  language  is  scarcely  less  loose 
than  the  paragraph  structure,  and  so  knowledge  that  would 
be  of  real  value  must  remain  locked  up  with  tlie  writer 
simply  because  he  did  not  know  how  to  communicate 
it. 

Contrast  with  the  above  the  perfect  unity  of  a  paragraph 
like  the  following,  in  which  the  numerous  details  are  made 
to  serve  a  single  end : 

Another  white  blanket  has  been  spread  upon  the  glen  since  I 
looked  out  last  night.  For  over  the  same  wilderness  of  snow  that 
has    met    my  gaze    for    a  week  I   see  the   steading  of  Waster 


UNITY.  101 

Lunny  sunk  deeper  into  the  waste.  The  schoolhouse,  I  suppose, 
serves  similarly  as  a  snow-mark  for  the  people  at  the  farm.  Un- 
less that  is  Waster  Lunny's  grieve  foddering  the  cattle  in  the  snow, 
not  a  living  thing  is  visible.  The  ghost-like  hills  that  pen  in  the 
glen  have  ceased  to  echo  to  the  sharp  crack  of  the  sportsman's 
gun,  so  clear  in  the  frosty  air  as  to  be  a  warning  to  every  rabbit 
and  partridge  in  the  valley;  and  only  giant  Catlaw  shows  here  and 
there  a  black  ridge,  rearing  his  head  at  the  entrance  to  the  glen 
and  struggling  ineffectually  to  cast  off  his  shroud.  Most  wintry 
sign  of  all,  I  think,  as  I  close  the  window  hastily,  is  the  open 
farm-style,  its  poles  lying  imbedded  in  the  snow  where  they  were 
last  flung  by  Waster  Lunny's  herd.  Through  the  still  air  comes 
from  a  distance  a  vibration  as  of  a  tuning-fork  ;  a  robin,  perhaps, 
alighting  on  the  wire  of  a  broken  fence. — J.  M.  Barrie  :  Auld 
Licht  Idylls. 

Or  for  unity  of  a  different  kind  take  this  from  Carlyle: 

Perhaps  one  would  say,  intensity^  with  the  much  that  depends 
on  it,  is  the  prevailing  character  of  Dante's  genius.  Dante  does 
not  come  before  us  as  a  large  catholic  mind  ;  rather  as  a  narrow, 
and  even  sectarian  mind  ;  it  is  partly  the  fruit  of  his  age  and  po- 
sition, but  partly,  too,  of  his  own  nature.  His  greatness  has,  in 
all  senses,  concentred  itself  into  fiery  emphasis  and  depth.  He 
is  world-great  not  because  he  is  world-wide,  but  because  he  is 
world-deep.  Through  all  objects  he  pierces,  as  it  were,  down  into 
the  heart  of  being.     I  know  nothing  so  intense  as  Dante. 

EXERCISES. 

1.   Criticise  the  unity  of  the  following  paragraphs: 

All  principles  of  right  are  innate  in  the  human  heart.  In  the 
formation  of  primitive  society  some  of  these  principles  were  dis- 
covered, and  in  the  evolution  of  peoples  the  standard  of  right  has 
changed.  The  morality  of  a  nation  is  measured  by  the  intelli- 
gence of  its  people.  Advancement  arises  from  strife  and  discon- 
tent. It  was  the  encroachment  of  England  upon  the  rights  of  the 
American  people  that  called  forth  the  words  of  Patrick  Henry  ; 
it  was  the  French  Revolution  that  created  Napoleon  ;  and  it  was 
the  abuses  of  the  Church  tliat  gave  birth  to  Savonarola. 


102  TEE  PARAGRAPH. 

Samuel  Johnson,  one  of  the  most  eminent  Englisli  writers  of  the 
eighteentli  century,  was  the  son  of  Michael  Johnson,  who  was,  at 
the  beginning  of  that  century,  a  magistrate  of  Lichfield  and  a 
bookseller  of  great  note  in  the  midland  counties.    Michael's  abil- 
ties  and  attainments  seem  to  have  been  considerable.     He  was  so 
well  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  the  vohimes  which  he  ex- 
posed to  sale  that  the  country  rectors  of  Staffordshire  and  Worces- 
tershire thought  him  an  oracle  on  points  of  learning.     Between 
him  and  the  clergy,  indeed,  there  was  a  strong  religious  and  po- 
litical sympathy.     He  was  a  zealous  Churchman,  and,  though  he 
qualified  himself  for  municipal  oflSce  by  taking  the  oaths  to  the 
sovereigns  in  possession,  was  to  the  last  a  Jacobite  in  heart.     At 
his  house,  a  house  which  is  still  pointed  out  to  every  traveller  who 
visits  Lichfield,  Samuel  was  born  on  the  18th  of  September,  1709. 
In  the  child  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  peculiarities 
which  afterward  distinguished  the  man  were  plainly  discernible  : 
great  muscular  strength,  accompanied  by  much  awkwardness  and 
many  infirmities  ;  great  quickness  of  parts,  with  a  morbid  pro- 
pensity to  sloth  and  procrastination  ;  a  kind  and  generous  heart, 
with  a  gloomy  and  irritable  temper.     He  had  inherited  from  his 
ancestors  a  scrofulous  taint,  which  it  was  beyond  the  power  of 
medicine  to  remove.     His  parents  were  weak  enough  to  believe 
that  the  royal  touch  was  a  specific  for  this  malady.     In  liis  third 
year  he  was  taken  up  to  London,  inspected  by  the  court  surgeon, 
prayed  over  by  the  court  chaplains,  and  stroked  and  presented 
with  a  piece  of  gold  by  Queen  Anne.     One  of  his  earliest  recol- 
lections was  that  of  a  stately  lady  in  a  diamond  stomacher  and  a 
long  black  hood.     Her  hand  was  applied  in  vain.     The  boy's  fea- 
tures, which  were  originally  noble  and  not  irregular,  were  dis- 
torted  by  his  malady.     His  cheeks  were  deeply  scarred.     He  lost 
for  a  time  the  sight  of  one  eye,  and  he  saw  but  very  imperfectly 
with  the  other.     But  the  force  of  his  mind  overcame  every  im- 
pediment.    Indolent  as  he  was,  he  acquired  knowledge  with  such  . 
ease  and  rapidity  that  at  every  school  to  which  he  was  sent  he  was 
soon  the  best  scholar.     From  sixteen,  to  eighteen  he  resided  at 
home  and  was  left  to  his  own  devices.     He  learned  much  at  this 
time,  though  his  studies  were  without  guidance  and  without  plan. 
He  ransacked  his  father's  shelves,  dipped  into  a  multitude  of 
books,  read  what  was  interesting,  and  i)assed  over  what  was  dull. 


COHERENCE.  103 

An  ordinary  lad  would  have  acquired  little  or  no  useful  knowl- 
edge in  such  a  way  ;  but  much  that  was  dull  to  ordinary  lads  was 
interesting  to  Samuel.  He  read  little  Greek,  for  his  proficiency 
in  that  language  was  not  such  that  he  could  take  much  pleasure 
in  the  masters  of  Attic  poetry  and  eloquence.  But  he  had  left 
school  a  good  Latiuist,  and  he  soon  acquired,  in  the  large  and 
miscellaneous  library  of  which  he  now  had  the  command  an  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  Latin  literature.  That  Augustan  delicacy  of 
taste  which  is  the  boast  of  the  great  public  schools  of  England 
he  never  possessed.  But  he  was  early  familiar  with  some  classi- 
cal writers  who  were  quite  unknown  to  the  best  scholars  in  the 
sixth  form  at  Eton.  He  was  peculiarly  attracted  by  the  works  of 
the  great  restorers  of  learning.  Once,  while  searching  for  some 
apples,  he  found  a  huge  folio  volume  of  Petrarch's  works.  The 
name  excited  his  curiosity,  and  he  eagerly  devoured  hundreds  of 
pages.  Indeed,  the  diction  and  versification  of  his  own  Latin 
compositions  show  that  he  had  paid  at  least  as  much  attention  to 
modern  copies  from  the  antique  as  to  the  original  models. 

2.  Point  out  violations  of  unity  in  Appendix  B  xi  4. 
Show,  if  possible,  that  Appendix  C  xv  1  has  unity. 

26.  Coherence. — It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  several  state- 
ments of  a  paragraph  hear  upon  a  central  theme — it  should 
further  be  made  readily  apparent  that  they  do  so.  This  is 
chiefly  a  matter  of  articulation  of  sentences,  of  such  an 
arrangement  of  sentences  and  such  a  use  of  relation-words 
as  will  make  clear  the  connection  of  thought.  There  must 
be  no  gaps,  or  at  least  only  temporary  ones ;  there  must  be 
no  confusion  of  references  backward  or  forward ;  and  the 
subject  must  never  be  far  out  of  sight. 

We  may  conveniently  distinguish  three  kinds  of  coher- 
ent parag^'aphs.  The  first  is  that  in  which  the  thought  is 
developed  so  smoothly  that  no  special  devices  are  required. 
In  the  second  coherence  is  secured  by  a  free  use  of  rela- 
tion- and  reference-words.  The  third  resorts  to  various 
inversions  of  sentence  order  (such  as  putting  parts  of  the 
predicate  before  the  subject)  in  order  to  bring  into  prox- 


104  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

imity  the  related  portions  of  different  sentences.  The  first 
may  be  illustrated  by  any  paragraph  in  which  there  is  a 
simple,  orderly  movement.  Where  there  is  repetition  of 
thought  or  enumeration  of  particulars  we  may  expect  a 
recurrence  of  the  same  sentence-subject — a  usage  much 
affected  by  Macanlay.  Here  is  a  brief  example  from 
Burke : 

I  have  always  wished  that,  as  the  dispute  had  its  apparent 
origin  from  things  done  in  Parliament,  and  as  the  Acts  passed 
there  hud  provoked  the  war,  the  foundntions  of  peace  should  be 
laid  in  Parliament  also.  I  have  been  astonished  to  find  that 
those  whose  zeal  for  the  dignity  of  our  body  was  so  hot  as  to 
light  up  the  flames  of  civil  war  should  even  publicly  declare 
that  these  delicate  points  ought  to  be  wholly  left  to  the  Crown. 
Poorly  as  I  may  be  thought  affected  to  the  authority  of  Parlia- 
ment, I  shall  never  admit  that  our  constitutional  rights  can  ever 
become  a  matter  of  ministerial  negotiation. — Letter  to  the  Sher- 
iffs of  Bristol. 

The  second  method  of  securing  coherence — the  use  of 
many  conjunctions,  adverbs,  pronouns — belongs  to  the  style 
of  compact  exposition  and  close  argument.  Writers  like 
Newman,  Arnold,  and  Mill  will  furnish  many  examples. 
We  take  an  example  from  Washington  Allston's  "  Lectures 
on  Art " : 

The  fourth  and  last  division  of  our  subject  is  the  Uarmony  of 
Parts  ;  or  the  essential  agreement  of  one  part  with  another,  and 
of  each  with  the  whole.  In  addition  to  our  first  general  defini- 
tion we  may  further  observe  that  by  a  Whole  in  Painting  is 
signified  the  complete  expression,  by  means  of  form,  color,  light, 
and  shadow,  of  one  thought,  or  series  of  thoughts,  having  for 
their  end  some  particular  truth,  or  sentiment,  or  action,  or  mood 
of  mind.  We  say  thongJit,  because  no  images,  however  put 
together,  can  ever  be  separated  by  the  mind  from  other  and 
extraneous  images,  so  as  to  comprise  a  positive  whole,  unless 
they  he  limited  by  some  intellectual  boundary.     A  picture  want- 


COHERENCE.  105 

ing  this  may  have  fine  parts,  but  is  not  a  Composition,  which 
implies  parts  united  to  each  other,  and  also  suited  to  some 
specific  purpose,  otherwise  they  cannot  be  known  as  united 
Since  Harmony,  therefore,  cannot  be  conceived  of  without  refer- 
ence to  a  whole,  so  neither  can  a  whole  be  imagined  without  fit- 
ness of  parts.  To  give  this  fitness,  then,  is  the  ultimate  task  and 
test  of  genius :  it  is,  in  fact,  calling  form  and  life  out  of  what  be- 
fore was  but  a  chaos  of  materials,  and  making  them  the  subject  and 
exponents  of  the  will.  As  the  master-principle,  also,  it  is  the  dis- 
poser, regulator,  and  modifier  of  shape,  line,  and  quantity,  adding, 
diminishing,  changing,  shaping,  till  it  becomes  clear  and  intelli- 
gible, and  it  finally  manifests  itself  in  pleasurable  identity  with 
the  harmony  within  us. 

The  third  method — inversion — is  appropriate  whenever 
a  sentence  takes  its  cue  from  a  sentence  preceding.  It 
is  a  sort  of  linking  device.  The  value  of  it  needs  to  be 
impressed  upon  all  writers  who  would  cultivate  continuity 
of  structure  and  elasticity  of  style.     Thus: 

The  Dutch  troops  had  been  reported  as  having  committed 
unusual  excesses.  Of  these  excesses  he  could  find  no  trace.  If 
traces  there  had  been,  they  were  completely  obliterated. 

Or  thus : 

His  faults,  in  fact,  were  faults  of  temper  rather  than  of  char- 
acter. Like  the  defects  of  his  writings,  too,  they  lay  upon  the 
surface,  and  were  seen  and  read  of  all  men.  But,  granting  every- 
thing that  can  be  urged  against  him,  impartial  consideration  must 
award  him  an  ample  excess  of  the  higher  virtues.  His  failings 
were  the  failings  of  a  man  who  possessed  in  the  fullest  measure 
vigor  of  mind,  intensity  of  conviction,  and  capability  of  passion. 
Disagree  with  him  one  could  hardly  help  ;  one  could  never  fail  to 
respect  him.  Many  of  the  common  charges  against  him  are  due 
to  pure  ignorance.  Of  these  perhaps  the  most  common  and  the 
most  absolutely  baseless  is  the  one  which  imputes  to  him  excess- 
ive literary  vanity.  Pride,  even  up  to  the  point  of  arrogance, 
he  had  ;  but  even  this  was  only  in  a  small  degree  connected  with 
his  reputation  as  an  author.  In  the  nearly  one  hundred  volumes 
he  wrote  not  a  single  line  can  be  found  which  implies  that  he 


106  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

had  an  undue  opinion  of  his  own  powers. — T.  R.  Lounsbdry  : 
James  Fenitnore  Cooper. 

Some  very  coherent  writers  are  so  daring  in  their  omis- 
sion of  relation-words  as  often  to  produce  the  appearance 
of  inconsecutiveness.  They  desire  vigor  and  rapidity,  and 
are  willing  to  trust  to  the  alertness  of  the  reader  to  make 
out  the  connection.     Example : 

Two  hours  after  the  accident  to  the  Andalusian  Capitana  an- 
other disaster  overtook  the  galleon  of  Oquendo.  He  was  himself 
apparently  not  on  board  at  the  time.  The  oiBcers,  impatient  and 
irritated  at  the  results  of  the  action,  were  quarrelling  with  them- 
selves and  one  another.  The  captain  struck  the  master  gunner 
with  a  stick.  The  master  gunner,  who  was  a  German,  went  be- 
low in  a  rage,  thrust  a  burning  linstock  into  a  powder-barrel,  and 
sprung  through  a  port-hole  into  the  sea.  The  deck  was  blown  off 
from  stem  to  stern.  Two  hundred  seamen  and  soldiers  were  sent 
into  the  air;  some  fell  into  the  water  and  were  drowned  ;  some, 
scorched  or  mutilated,  dropped  back  into  the  wreck.  The  ship, 
which  was  also  one  of  the  largest  in  the  fleet,  was  built  so  strongly 
that  she  survived  the  sliock  and  floated,  and  her  masts  still  stood. 
The  flash  was  seen.  The  duke  sent  boats  to  learn  what  had  hap- 
pened and  to  save  the  men.  The  officers  and  the  few  who  were 
unhurt  were  taken  off ;  but  there  were  no  means  of  removing  the 
wounded.  They,  too,  were  abandoned  therefore,  to  be  picked  up 
at  daylight  by  the  English  and  sent  on  shore,  where  the  disabled 
were  kindly  treated.  The  hull  was  still  worth  rifling.  It  con- 
tained money,  like  all  the  rest  of  the  ships,  and  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hold  there  were  powder-barrels  which  had  escaped  the  explo- 
sion.— Froude  :  History  of  England. 

The  insertion  of  the  suppressed  relation-words  in  a  few 
sentences  from  Macaulay's  '"Samuel  Johnson''  will  serve 
to  show  that,  while  there  may  be  some  gain  in  immediate 
clearness,  there  is  much  loss  of  force : 

But  that  was  a  time  of  wonders.  George  the  Third  had 
ascended  the  throne  ;  and  had,  in  the  course  of  a  few  months, 
di.sgusted  many  of  the  old  friends  and  conciliated  many  of  the 
old  enemies  of  his  house.     [Indeed,  matters  had  actually  gone  so 


COHERENCE.  107 

far  that]  the  city  was  becoming  mutinous,  [while]  Oxford  was  be- 
coming loyal.  [On  the  one  hand,]  Cavendishes  and  Bentincks 
were  murmuring  ;[on  the  other  hand,]  Somersets  and  Wyndhams 
were  hastening  to  kiss  hands.  [Furthermore,]  the  head  of  the 
treasury  was  now  Lord  Bute,  who  was  a  Tory,  and  could  have  no 
objection  to  Johnson's  Toryism.  [Besides]  Bute  wished  to  be 
thought  a  patron  of  men  of  letters  ;  and  Johnson  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  and  one  of  the  most  needy  men  of  letters  in 
Europe.  [Accordingly]  a  pension  of  three  hundred  a  year  was 
graciously  offered,  and  with  very  little  hesitation  accepted. 

Another  case  of  seeming  incoherence  arises  when  a  writer 
deliberately  reverses  the  order  of  develojiment  or  steps  aside 
for  an  illustration  with  the  intention  of  coming  back  to  his 
theme  in  a  few  moments  and  making  the  relation  clear. 
The  following  example  is  from  Carlyle's  essay  on  Burns  : 

The  character  of  Burns,  indeed,  is  a  theme  that  cannot  easily 
become  either  trite  or  exhausted  ;  and  will  probably  gain  rather 
than  lose  in  its  dimensions  by  the  distance  to  which  it  is  removed 
by  Time.  No  man,  it  has  been  said,  is  a  hero  to  his  valet ;  and 
this  is  probably  true  ;  but  the  fault  is  at  least  as  likely  to  be  the 
valet's  as  the  hero's.  For  it  is  certain  that  to  the  vulgar  eye  few 
things  are  wonderful  that  are  not  distant.  It  is  difficult  for  men 
to  believe  that  the  man,  the  mere  man  whom  they  see,  nay,  per- 
haps painfully  feel,  toiling  at  their  side  through  the  poor  jostlings 
of  existence,  can  be  made  of  finer  clay  than  themselves.  Sup- 
pose that  some  dining  acquaintance  of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's,  and 
neighbor  of  John  a  Combe's,  had  snatched  an  hour  or  two  from  the 
preservation  of  his  game,  and  written  us  a  life  of  Shakespeare  ! 
AVhat  dissertations  should  we  not  have  had, — not  on  Hamlet  and 
Tlie  Tempest,  but  on  the  wool-trade,  and  deer-stealing,  and  the 
libel  and  vagrant  laws  ;  and  how  the  Poacher  became  a  Player  ; 
and  how  Sir  Thomas  and  Mr.  John  had  Christian  bowels,  and  did 
not  push  him  to  extremities  !  In  like  manner,  we  believe,  with 
respect  to  Burns,  etc. 

]\Iark,  in  the  following  selection  from  Stevenson's  *'Vir- 
ginibus  Puerisque,"  the  surprise  with  which  one  begins  the 
sentence,  "  When  you  see  a  dish  of  fruit  at  dessert."     And 


108  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

iu  the  sentence  following  the  writer  seems  to  take  still  an- 
other tack,  although  at  this  point  the  experienced  reader 
will  begin  to  see  what  is  aimed  at.  The  next  sentence, 
"Well,"  etc.,  brings  the  thought  round  to  the  starting- 
point  with  a  swing. 

I  am  often  filled  with  wonder  that  so  many  marriages  are  pass- 
ably successful,  and  so  few  come  to  open  failure,  the  more  so  as 
I  fail  to  understand  the  priuciple  on  which  ])eople  regulate  their 
choice.  I  see  women  marrying  indiscriminately  with  staring  bur- 
gesses and  ferret-faced,  white-eyed  boys,  and  men  dwelling  in 
contentment  with  noisy  scullions,  or  taking  into  their  lives  acid- 
ulous vestals.  It  is  a  common  answer  to  say  the  good  people 
marry  because  they  fall  in  love  ;  and  of  course  you  may  use  and 
misuse  a  word  as  much  as  you  please,  if  you  have  the  world  along 
with  you.  But  love  is  at  least  a  somewhat  hyperbolical  expres- 
sion for  such  lukewarm  preference.  It  is  not  here,  anyway,  that 
Love  employs  his  golden  shafts;  he  cannot  be  said,  with  any  fitness 
of  language,  to  reign  here  and  revel.  Indeed,  if  this  be  love  at 
all,  it  is  plain  the  poets  have  been  fooling  with  mankind  since  the 
foundation  of  the  world.  And  you  have  only  to  look  these  happy 
couples  in  the  face  to  see  they  have  never  been  in  love,  or  iu 
hate,  or  in  any  other  high  passion,  all  their  days.  When  you  see 
a  dish  of  fruit  at  dessert,  you  sometimes  set  your  affections  upon 
one  particular  peach  or  nectarine,  watch  it  with  some  anxiety  as 
it  comes  round  the  table,  and  feel  quite  a  sensible  disappointment 
when  it  is  taken  by  some  one  else.  I  have  used  the  phrase 
"  high  passion."  "Well,  1  should  say  this  was  about  as  high  a  pas- 
sion as  generally  leads  to  marriage. 

AVhen  a  writer  cares  more  for  smoothness  of  st3ie  than 
for  energy  or  for  startling  effects  he  will  use  conjunctions 
freely,  em])loying  many  and  '5,  for  example,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  clauses,  sentences,  and  even  paragraj^hs,  where 
they  are  not  really  necessary  to  the  sense  of  the  passage. 
Numerous  instances  of  this  may  he  found  iu  the  writings 
of  Kuskin,  Arnold,  Newman,  De  Quincey.  See  Appendix 
C  XVIII  9.  In  the  striking  passages  cited  at  the  end  of 
37,  4,  the  effect  partakes  of  the  sublime — though  this  effect 


COHERENCE.  109 

is  probably  due  less  to  increased  coherence  tlian  to  the 
sense  of  steady  progress  and  climax  conveyed,  and  to  the 
simplicity  and  lack  of  subtlety  that  characterize  the  coor- 
dinate over  the  subordinate  forms  of  speech. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Show  wherein  the  following  paragraphs  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  coherence  and  wherein  they  fail  to  meet 
them : 

A  small  engine  takes  one  several  miles  from  the  sawmills  of 
Scotia  up  into  the  dense  woods,  or  at  least  to  the  foot  of  the  steep 
hills,  which  one  has  to  climb  if  he  wishes  to  see  the  trees  felled. 
A  wedge-shaped  piece  is  chopped  out  of  the  side,  and  then  the 
rest  of  the  tree  is  sawed  through.  As  they  fall  men  are  ready  to 
take  off  the  bark  and  put  them  into  chutes,  in  which  there  is  just 
enough  water  to  make  them  slide  easily  and  quickly.  Tliey  rush 
down  the  steep  hill,  tumbling  in  a  confused  heap  at  the  bottom. 
Then  they  are  joined  two  by  two  by  means  of  iron  hooks  called 
"  dogs,"  forming  a  long  procession  headed  by  sixteen  or  eighteen 
docile-looking  oxen.  Down  the  gulches  plod  the  poor  old  animals, 
drawing  the  heavy  train  over  the  planked  road,  until  they  reach 
the  flat-cars  on  which  the  logs  are  carried  to  the  river.  Here  they 
are  made  into  rafts  and  floated  to  the  mills. 

A  few  weeks  after  Johnson  had  entered  on  these  obscure  labors 
he  published  a  work  which  at  once  placed  him  high  among  the 
writers  of  his  age.  It  is  probable  that  what  he  had  suffered  dur- 
ing his  first  year  in  London  had  often  reminded  him  of  some 
parts  of  that  noble  poem  in  which  Juvenal  had  described  the 
misery  and  degradation  of  a  needy  man  of  letters,  lodged  among 
the  pigeons'  nests  in  the  tottering  garrets  which  overhung  the 
streets  of  Rome.  Pope's  admirable  imitations  of  Horace's  satires 
and  epistles  had  recently  appeared,  were  in  every  hand,  and  were 
by  many  readers  thought  superior  to  the  originals.  What  Pope 
had  done  for  Horace,  Johnson  aspired  to  do  for  Juvenal.  The 
enterprise  was  bold,  and  yet  judicious.  For  between  Johnson  and 
Juvenal  thei'e  was  much  in  common,  much  more,  certainly,  than 
between  Pope  and  Horace. — Macaulay  :  Samtiel  Johnson. 


110  TBE  PARAORAPB. 

"Scientific  Temperance." 

Education,  having  for  its  aim  such  development  and  training 
of  the  child  as  will  enable  him  to  make  a  success  of  life,  ought 
not  to  ignore  the  subject  of  temperance  ;  that  it  does  not  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  thirty-nine  States  of  the  Union  Scien- 
tific Temperance  has  been  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  of 
the  public  schools. 

A  person  is  well  fitted  for  the  work  of  life  only  when  he  has 
made  the  most  of  his  mental  endowments  and  has  learned  not  to 
use  them  for  self  alone ;  for  the  highest  well-being  of  the  State 
and  nation  depends  upon  the  industry,  enlightenment,  upright- 
ness, and  unselfishness  of  the  individuals.  Habits  are  at  first 
slender  threads,  but  they  strengthen  into  mighty  cables,  binding 
the  man  to  the  right  or  to  the  wrong.  Education  proposes  to 
help  the  child  form  right  habits,  and  in  order  to  do  this  it  must 
teach  him  to  avoid  all  that  tends  toward  tlie  formation  of  wrong 
ones. 

Every  bright  boy  looks  forward  to  a  successful  career.  This 
can  best  be  attained  by  a  strong  body  and  clear  mind,  since 
industry,  an  important  factor  in  business  life,  requires  physical 
and  mental  endurance.  Scientific  Temperance,  the  systematically 
arranged  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the  human 
system,  teaches  him  tliat  alcoholic  beverages  do  not  strengthen, 
nourish,  or  sustain — "there  is  more  nourishment  in  a  spoonful  of 
flour  than  in  a  quart  of  beer."  On  the  contrary,  alcohol  destroys 
vitality,  injuring  the  stomach,  heart,  lungs,  and  nervous  system. 

2.   Point  out  the  connection  of  thought  in  the  follow'ing : 

Last  on  the  list  of  the  executive  staff  of  the  city  room  comes 
the  copy-reader.  Upon  his  head  and  the  point  of  his  "blue 
pencil"  rest  the  curses  of  every  man  who  ever  wrote  for  a  news- 
paper. After  the  city  editor  or  his  assistant  or  the  night  editor 
has  passed  upon  a  "story"  the  copy,  i.  e.,  the  manuscript,  is 
turned  over  to  him,  and  upon  him  devolves  the  preparation  for 
the  printer.  The  article  contains  a  thousand  words.  The  city 
editor  gave  orders  for  that  number,  but  now  finds  that  on 
account  of  a  press  of  matter  he  can  use  but  five  hundred.  The 
copy-reader  must  cut  out  just  half  of  the  story.  The  writer 
knows  what  goes  to  make  a  good  story,  but  is  totally  ignorant  of 


COHERENCE.  Ill 

the  rules  of  orthography  and  punctuation.  Fault  in  these  mat- 
ters the  copy-reader  must  correct.  The  writer  is  new  to  the 
business.  He  has  a  good  story,  but  has  mixed  the  grain  and  the 
chaff  as  bewilderingly  as  only  a  new  man  can.  The  copy-reader 
must  find  the  kernels  and  throw  aside  the  rest.  The  city  editor 
is  too  busy  or  too  lazy  to  read  a  story  which  has  just  been  handed 
in.  The  assistant  is  in  the  same  fix.  The  copy-reader  must  do 
their  work.     These  are  the  trials  of  the  man  of  the  blue  pencil. 

3.  Supply  connectiug  words  at  points  indicated  by  tlie 
carets  in  the  following.  The  first  passage  is  from  Kip- 
ling's "Jungle  Book,"  and  the  connecting  words  have 
been  purposely  removed.  The  second  passage  is  from 
Macaulay's  "War  of  the  Succession  iu  Spain,"  and  stands 
as  originally  written. 

For  three  months  after  that  night  Mowgli  hardly  ever  left  the 
village  gate,  he  was  so  busy  learning  the  ways  and  customs  of 
men.  a  He  had  to  wear  a  cloth  around  him,  which  annoyed 
him  horribly  ;  a  a  he  had  to  learn  a  about  money,  which  he  did 
not  in  the  least  understand ;  a  about  plowing,  of  which  he  did 
not  see  the  use.  a  The  little  children  in  the  village  made  him 
very  angry.  Luckily,  the  Law  of  the  Jungle  had  taught  him  to 
keep  his  temper, —  a  in  the  jungle,  life  and  food  depend  on  keep- 
ing your  temper ;  but  when  they  made  fun  of  him  because  he 
would  not  play  games  or  fly  kites,  or  because  he  mispronounced 
some  words,  only  the  knowledge  that  it  was  unsportsmanlike  to 
kill  little  naked  cubs  kept  him  from  picking  them  up  and  break- 
ing them  in  two. 

No  parliamentary  struggle,  from  the  time  of  the  Exclusion  Bill 
to  the  time  of  the  Reform  Bill,  has  been  so  violent  as  that  which 
took  place  between  the  authors  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  and 
the  war  party,  a  The  Commons  were  for  peace ;  a  the  Lords 
were  for  vigorous  hostilities,  a  The  queen  was  compelled  to 
choose  which  of  her  two  highest  prerogatives  she  would  exercise 
— whether  she  would  create  peers,  or  dissolve  the  parliament,  a 
The  ties  of  party  superseded  the  ties  of  neighborhood  and  of 
blood ;  A  the  members  of  the  hostile  factions  would  scarcely 
speak  to  each  other,  or  bow  to  each  other  ;  a  the  women  appeared 


112  THE  PARAORAPB. 

at  the  theatres  bearing  the  badges  of  their  political  sect.  The 
schism  extended  a   to  the  most  remote  counties  of  England. 

Treat  in  the  same  way  the  elliptical  passages  in  Appen- 
dix C  XXII  10,  11,  26,  32;  also  in  the  paragraph  from 
Macaulay's  "Samuel  Johnson,"  quoted  above,  25,  1. 

4.  Apply  the  method  of  inversion  wherever  possible  in 
C  XXII  41.  Use  inversion  to  improve  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

The  public  documents  were  destroyed  by  fire  and  afterwards 
restored  from  memory.  But  it  can  be  seen  that  they  could  have 
been  written  with  little  accuracy. 

I  was  homesick  and  lonesome  during  the  first  few  days  after 
my  arrival  at  school.  I  thought  that  I  should  never  get  accus- 
tomed to  the  place,  although  the  teachers  tried  to  make  it  as 
pleasant  for  me  as  they  could.  After  I  became  better  acquainted 
with  the  boys  my  attacks  of  homesickness  left  me  and  I  was  as 
jolly  as  any  one  in  school. 

27.  Proportion  and  Emphasis.  —  The  paragraph  is  a 
composition  in  miniature,  and  it  is  by  virtue  of  this  fact 
that  we  are  applying  to  it  the  same  laws  that  were  applied 
to  the  whole  composition — the  laws  of  unity,  coherence, 
and  proportion.  In  regard  to  this  last  in  particular  little 
more  can  be  done  than  to  restate  what  has  already  been 
stated  in  13,  4.  The  matters  of  chief  importance  should 
in  general  have  the  important  positions,  the  beginning  and 
the  end;  and  they  should  not  be  obscured  by  intrusive 
details. 

EXERCISE. 

As  a  general  exercise  it  Avill  be  well  to  make  at  this 
point  outlines  or  abstracts  of  several  magazine  articles, 
such  as  were  recommended  under  10,  exercise  3,  supple- 
Tnented  with  somewhat  detailed  criticisms.  The  following 
directions  and  questions  may  serve  as  a  guide: 

1.  First  put  into  a  single  sentence,  if  possible,  the  substance  of 
each  paragraph. 


PROPORTION  AND  EMPHASIS.  113 

2.  Next  make  an  abstract,  if  possible,  by  larger  sections. 

3.  Are  these  sections  arranged  in  a  natural  (logical)  order? 
What  is  the  basis  of  the  division  :  classification  of  articles,  order 
of  events,  climacteric  enumeration  of  arguments,  or  what?  Does 
any  section  seem  disproportionately  full  or  scant  ? 

4.  Is  the  paragi'aph  structure  good?  That  is,  is  each  para- 
graph confined  to  a  single  idea  ?  Or  are  there  several  topics  in 
one  paragraph  ?     Or  is  one  topic  divided  into  several  paragraphs  ? 

5.  Does  the  vpriter,  in  passing  from  one  paragraph  to  another, 
use  relation-words  to  indicate  the  connection  of  thought  ?  Does 
he  ever  summarize  what  has  been  said  before  proceeding  to  the 
next  point  ? 

6.  Does  the  piece  have  unity  ?  Does  it  keep  close  to  the  cen- 
tral theme,  or  does  it  ramble  ?     Does  the  title  fit  ? 

7.  Is  the  composition  narrative,  descriptive,  expository,  or 
argumentative  ?  Is  the  character  indicated  by  the  title  ?  Is  it 
indicated  in  the  introduction?  Is  it  indicated  by  any  summary 
at  the  close  ? 


THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

I.     NATUKE    OF   THE    SENTENCE. 

28.  Definition. — A  Sentence  is  a  word  or  collection  of 
words  expressing  a  complete  thouglit.  It  is  the  real  unit 
of  discourse,  the  necessary  medium  of  intelligent  communi- 
cation, and  therefore  the  most  vital  element  of  composi- 
tion. It  is  largely  by  the  development  of  an  acute  "sen- 
tence-sense "  that  one  becomes  master  of  a  good  style. 
■  In  printing  and  writing  the  conventional  outward  marks 
of  a  sentence  are  the  capital  letter  at  the  beginning  and 
the  period  (or  interrogation-point  or  exclamation-point)  at 
the  end. 

Two  parts,  expressed  or  understood,  are  essential  to 
every  sentence :  the  Subject,  about  which  something  is  said, 
and  the  Predicate,  which  says  it.  To  these  may  be  added 
other  parts — additional  subjects  and  predicates,  and  quali- 
fiers or  modifiers. 

A  term  that  merely  presents  an  idea  or  concept,  or 
merely  raises  a  picture  in  the  mind,  does  not  constitute  a 
sentence.  Thus:  horse,  walking.  Hack.  Even  the  com- 
bination of  these  into  a  single  phrase,  hlack  horse  walking, 
does  not  yet  make  what  is  technically  called  a  sentence: 
there  is  no  actual  predication.  It  is  clear,  however,  that 
this  is  logically  a  rude  form  of  sentence,  the  explicit  addi- 
tion of  is  or  goes  or  /  see  being  scarcely  necessary.  And  in 
all  cases  where  the  implication  is  made  clear  by  punctuation 

114 


DEFINITION.  115 

or  by  intonation  of  tlie  voice,  as  in  Go  (=  Go  tJiou),  A 
horse  !  (=  I  see  a  horse,  or  I  want  a  horse),  Where  ?  (=  Where 
is  it  ?),  Ave  have  sentences  that  fall  legitimately  within  the 
definition.  Prepositional,  participial,  and  infinitive  phrases, 
relatiii^e  clauses,  and  combinations  of  subject  and  predicate 
introduced  by  subordinating  conjunctions  are  not  sen- 
tences and  should  not  be  treated  as  such.  The  punctua- 
tion in  the  following  examples  is  therefore  wrong: 

The  forest  reservations  have  until  the  last  year  had  absolutely 
no  protection,  and  the  sheep-herders  have  used  them  for  pasturage 
as  before.  The  only  difference  being  that  they  were  not  open  for 
entry. 

I  watched  the  men  put  out  the  "log"  and  learned  its  use. 
Also  that  of  the  compass  and  chart. 

In  the  selections  from  Ilaw^thorne's  '*' Note  Books''  given 
under  section  6,  1,  many  such  fragments  of  sentences  are 
to  be  found.  But  they  were  not  intended  to  be  anything 
more  than  memoranda:  they  are  but  jottings  upon  which 
the  art  of  composition  has  not  been  exercised  at  all.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  writers  will  take  the  license  of  introduc- 
ing such  incomplete  sentences  into  formal  composition.  In 
general  this  occurs  only  where  the  missing  portion  is  easily 
supplied  from  what  has  gone  before.  Take  an  example 
from  Lowell : 

A  pair  of  pe-wees  have  built  immemorially  on  a  jutting  brick  in 
the  arched  entrance  to  the  ice-house.  Always  on  the  same  brick, 
and  never  more  than  a  single  pair,  though  two  broods  of  five  each 
are  raised  there  every  summer. 

So  Kuskin,  after  describing  the  poor  who  live  inside  of 
the  town  of  Geneva,  begins  a  new  paragraph,  "But  out- 
side the  ramparts,  no  more  poor."  Kipling  sometimes 
punctuates  a  relative  clause  as  a  separate  sentence — a  prac- 
tice that  may  easily  be  abused: 
That  letter  made  Agnes  Leiter  very  unhappy,  and  she  cried  and 


116  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

put  it  away  in  her  desk,  and  became  Mrs.  Somebodj'  Else  for  the 
good  of  her  family.  Which  is  the  first  duty  of  every  Christian 
maid. 

A  short  descriptive  passage  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  the  jmrpose  being  simply 
to  present  the  features  of  a  scene  as  a  j^ainting  might  pre- 
sent them.  Care  slionld  be  taken  not  to  mingle  complete 
and  incomplete  sentences  indiscriminately. 

A  dirty  little  office.  Pieces  of  paper  scattered  over  the  floor, 
brown  with  its  accumulation  of  tobacco  filth.  Cobwebs  and 
much  dust  collected  in  the  corners  of  the  room. 

Of  course  these  fragments  could  be  easily  combined  into 
a  single  sentence  by  summing  them  up  at  the  end  and  sup- 
plying a  verb.     Thus : 

A  dirty  little  office  ;  pieces  of  paper  scattered  over  the  floor, 
brown  with  its  accumulation  of  tobacco  filth  ;  cobwebs  and  much 
dust  collected  in  the  corners  of  the  room — such  was  the  scene  that 
met  my  gaze. 

It  is  evident  that  these  fragmentary  sentences  would  be 
wholly  out  of  place  in  sober  scientific  or  technical  prose. 
Tliey  are  partly  artistic  devices,  partly  a  natural  form  of 
expression  where  some  feeling  lies  behind  the  utterance. 
They  are  often  made  frankly  exclamatory. 

EXERCISE. 

Determine  whicli  of  the  following  expressions  come 
within  the  definition  of  a  sentence,  and  which  may  and 
which  may  not  be  allowed  to  stand  as  punctuated: 

Sail  on  the  weather  beam  ! 

Some  people  say  that  there  is  no  romance  in  India.  Those 
people  are  wrong.  Our  lives  hold  quite  as  much  romance  as  is 
good  for  us.     Sometimes  more. 

But  what  good  has  this  done  him  with  the  government?  None 
in  the  world. 

They  were  waiting  for  our  return.     Saumarez  most  of  all. 


KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  117 

It  is  interesting  to  study  the  habits  of  the  deer.  It  is  very  reg- 
ular in  its  habits.  Having  certain  times  of  the  day  at  which  to 
feed,  to  drink,  and  to  rest. 

Saint  George  and  victory  ! 

Koom  for  Antony  ; — most  noble  Antony  ! 

At  first  these  machines  were  used  for  tlie  operation  of  small 
printing-offices  and  for  driving  coffee-mills,  sewing-machines,  etc. 
Afterward  to  operate  pumps  and  also  freight-elevators  in  ware- 
houses. 

No  roads,  no  paths,  no  landmarks,  but  here  and  there  at  inter- 
vals of  many  leagues  a  clearing  in  the  foi'est  where  some  wretched 
settlement  strives  to  exist ;  more  rarely,  a  deserted  Jesuit  mis- 
sion. 

In  the  foreground  a  long,  low  cabin,  half  rain-eroded  adobe, 
half  whitewashed  pine.  At  one  side  a  brick  store.  In  the 
middle  distance  a  church-spire  lifts  its  tarnished  cross.  Behind 
all  the  mountains  and  their  everlasting  green. 

Outside  is  silence,  save  for  the  murmuring  of  the  wires,  now 
low  and  sweet  as  a  song  of  love,  now  rising  into  a  wail  of  despair. 
Inside,  silence  too,  save  for  the  droning  of  the  clock. 

29,  Kinds  of  Sentences. — With  the  classification  of  sen- 
tences as  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  ex- 
clamatory we  are  not  concerned  here.  Those  names  are 
self-explanatory,  anyway.  But  there  is  another  classifica- 
tion, based  npon  characteristics  that  affect  both  unity  and 
structure,  which  we  shall  do  well  to  understand.  By  this 
classification  sentences  are  either  simple,  complex,  or 
compound. 

1.  A  Simple  Sentence  has  but  one  subject  and  one  pred- 
icate. The  subject  and  predicate  may  be  in  themselves 
either  simple  or  compound.     Examples: 

The  theory  of  books  is  noble. 
Pity  and  need  make  all  flesh  kin. 
Look  in  thy  heart  and  write. 

2.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  a  simple  sentence 
with  one  or  more  combinations  of  subject  and  predicate 


118  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

added  to  it  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  wholly  dependent 
upon  it  for  their  sense.  These  dependent  portions  are 
called  clauses — substantive,  adjective,  or  adverb  clauses,  ac- 
cording as  they  are  used  as  nouns,  or  to  qualify  nouns,  or 
to  qualify  verbs  or  adjectives.     Examples : 

I  know  what  you  would  say. 

Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 

If  we  do  meet  again,  why,  we  shall  smile. 

3.  A  Compound  Sentence  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  sentences  that  are  closely  related,  but 
virtually  independent  and  able  to  stand  alone.  They  are 
commonly  connected  by  one  of  the  coordinating  conjunc- 
tions, such  as  atid,  or,  nor,  but,  therefore.     Examples: 

I  love  my  country,  you  love  your  life. 

It  is  style  alone  by  which  posterity  will  judge  of  a  great  work, 
for  an  author  can  have  nothing  truly  his  own  but  his  style. 

EXERCISE. 

Determine  what  kinds  of  sentences  are  used  in  Appen- 
dix C  XVII,  or  in  any  other  selection  in  the  appendices. 

30.  Unity. — Fulfilling  its  ofiice  as  a  unit  of  discourse,  a 
sentence  should  embody  either  a  single  thouglit  only,  or 
several  thoughts  standing  in  some  intimate  relation  to  each 
other,  as  of  contrast,  cause  and  effect,  series,  details  of  a 
single  picture,  etc.  Just  wliat  relation  will  warrant  the 
union  of  separate  thoughts  into  a  single  sentence  must  in 
general  be  determined  by  the  writer.  This  is  one  of  the 
points  that  will  call  into  play  what  we  have  termed  the 
sentence-sense,  the  development  of  which  cannot  be  prac- 
tised too  assiduously. 

We  can  hardly  state  more  precisely  than  in  the  language 
given  above  what  constitutes  sentence  unity  or  what  consti- 
tutes a  violation  of  it.    More  will  be  accomplished  by  illus- 


UNITY.  119 

tration  than  in  any  other  way.  Take  a  case  of  gross  viola- 
tion of  the  principle : 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  iu  the  Pacific  Ocean  about  two  thou- 
sand miles  southwest  of  San  Francisco,  and  are  celebrated  for 
their  picturesque  scenery,  tropical  fruits,  half-civilized  inhabi- 
tants, and  a  very  active  volcano — attractions  varied  and  grand 
enough  to  raise  the  highest  expectations  of  new  and  never-to-be- 
forgotten  scenes  and  experiences  to  be  had  in  this  "  inferno  of 
the  world  and  paradise  of  the  Pacific,"  as  these  islands  are  some- 
times called  because  of  the  terrible  eruptions  and  on  the  other 
hand  the  fine  climate  and  scenery. 

Is  will  be  observed  that  the  sentence  is  coherent.  But 
coherence  is  not  sufficient.  The  writer  merely  strung 
thoughts  together  as  they  occurred  to  him,  allowing  one 
to  suggest  another,  and  failing  to  realize  that  a  sentence 
must  be  kept  within  some  kind  of  definite  bounds.  Co- 
herence, or,  better,  consecutiveness,  may  mark  throughout 
a  conversation  that  begins  with  the  problem  of  Carbonifer- 
ous coal-deposits  and  ends  with  the  last  circus  performance, 
but  such  a  conversation  would  not  make  a  good  composi- 
tion, because  it  is  lacking  iu  unity.  In  like  manner,  the 
most  carefully  developed  composition  would  not  constitute 
legitimate  material  for  a  single  sentence.  Take  several 
more  examples  of  rambling  sentences: 

The  concert  we  gave  tliat  evening  was  quite  a  success  from  a 
musical  standpoint,  but  not  so  financially,  for  the  audience  was 
rather  small;  nevertheless  there  were  quite  enough  to  give  us  a 
very  pleasant  dance  after  tlie  entertainment,  and  it  was  already 
morning  when  we  returned  to  our  hotel,  tired,  but  not  at  all  dis- 
satisfied with  our  evening. 

Everything  in  the  factory  was  neat  and  clean,  and  I  was  just 
wishing  that  the  machines  were  running,  when  I  was  called  to  go 
on  board,  and  as  we  left  the  wharf  I  waved  my  handkerchief  to 
the  round  happy-faced  Chinamen,  who  did  not  seem  at  all  worn 
out  by  their  hard  work. 


120  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Wisconsin  is  my  native  State  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Lake  Superior. 

The  two  facts  in  tlie  last  sentence  seem  to  be  wholly  unre- 
lated. Perhaps  they  might  find  place  in  a  single  sentence 
without  giving  offence  if  one  part  were  duly  subordinated 
or  treated  as  parenthetic,  thus:  "  Wiscousin,  which  is  my 
native  State,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Lake  Superior." 

He  is  usually  good-tempered  and  is  of  German  descent. 
The  woman  is  small  and  speaks  Spanish  fluently. 

The  last,  taken  with  its  context,  had  sutKicient  unity,  for 
it  was  the  description  given  of  a  woman  who  was  wanted 
by  the  police.  The  unity  might  well  be  shown  by  putting 
it  thus:  "The  officers  can  give  only  two  clues  to  the 
woman's  identity:  she  is  small,  and  she  speaks  Spanish 
fiuently." 

Soon  the  cries  of  the  birds  grew  more  shrill,  their  anger  had 
evidently  grown  beyond  control,  they  began  hopping  to  and  fro, 
their  feathers  were  puffed  out  and  their  wings  spread. 

Here  we  have  a  series  of  related  statements,  to  the  union  of 
which  there  could  be  no  objection  if  the  parts  were  entirely 
coordinate.  l^ut  the  second  statement  is  somewhat  out  of 
line  with  the  rest,  pausing  to  make  a  comment  or  assign  a 
cause,  thus  destroying  the  unity  of  the  sentence.  If  the 
second  clause  were  placed  first,  as  introductory,  or  possibly 
even  last,  as  summarizing  or  explanatory,  we  should  not 
find  fault  Avith  the  sentence.  The  following,  for  example, 
is  good,  except  that  a  colon  might  be  substituted  for  the 
first  semicolon  to  show  clearly  the  relation  of  the  first  clause 
to  the  clauses  that  follow : 

The  discipline  of  the  institution  was  changed;  the  whole  system 
o£  pecuniary  fines  was  swept  away;  the  theory  was  established 
that  the  students  should  be  treated  as  gentlemen. 

And  a  straightforward  series  of  related  coordinate  state- 


unity:  121 

ments  makes  a  sentence  of  sufficient  unity,  as  in  the  fol- 
ing: 

The  shadows  on  the  hills  gi-ew  dim,  the  cattle  began  to  low,  the 
songs  of  birds  became  fainter  and  fainter,  the  snake  uncoiled 
itself  and  slipped  away  in  the  dark  shadows  of  the  cave. 

The  morning  after,  a  fair  fresh  breeze  came  up  from  the  south; 
the  ships  ran  flowingly  before  it ;  and  in  two  days  and  nights 
they  had  crossed  the  bay  and  were  off  Ushant. 

The  storm  lasted  two  days,  and  then  the  sky  cleared,  and  again 
gathering  into  order  they  proceeded  on  their  way. 

EXERCISE. 

Test  the  following  sentences  by  the  law  of  unity : 

Johnson  wrote  a  story  called  "  Rasselas,"  and  he  was  so  rude 
that  he  would  come  into  a  drawing-room,  and  even  go  so  far  as 
to  place  his  feet  on  a  chair,  no  matter  who  was  in  the  room. 

The  first  collection  of  poems  appeared  in  "Hyperion,"  later 
they  were  published  with  "Voices  of  the  Night,"  and  the  last 
collection  was  in  a  volume  of  translations.  [What  would  appear 
to  be  the  rule  with  regard  to  three  clauses  with  three  different 
subjects  ?  three  clauses  with  the  same  subject  ?  three  clauses 
with  two  subjects  ?] 

Many  had  been  killed,  many  more  had  been  wounded  ;  masts, 
yards,  rigging,  all  had  suffered. 

The  temescal  was  a  long,  low,  adobe  hut,  built  near  a  body  of 
clear  water,  near  the  top  of  the  hut  was  an  aperture,  to  let  out 
the  smoke  of  the  great  fire  built  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  and 
in  the  side  of  tlie  hut  was  a  hole  by  which  to  enter. 

When  Captain  Fuller  was  in  Milan  in  1878,  at  the  same  time 
with  General  Grant,  he  found  on  returning  to  their  hotel  one 
day  a  great  crowd  assembled.  [Why  does  the  "  when  "  clause 
seem  out  of  place  in  this  sentence  ?  To  how  much  is  it  really 
introductory  ?  Why  is  the  following  sentence  all  right  ? — "When 
he  returned  to  his  hotel  he  found  a  great  crowd  assembled."] 

This  programme  would  have  been  carried  out,  but  a  few  days 
after  the  marriage  Mrs.  Saunders  was  suddenly  taken  ill  with  the 
pneumonia  from  which  she  has  fully  recovered  after  a  short 
illness. 


1^2  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

The  fourteenth  century  is  interesting  for  the  awakening  of 
literature  and  art,  which  had  been  silenced  for  the  space  of  about 
a  century,  caused  by  wars  carried  on  extensively  in  previous 
epochs. 

The  thread  used  by  these  Indians  was  much  sought  for,  and 
was  twisted  from  the  inner  bark  of  milkweed. 

They  had  expected  that  one  engagement  would  annihilate  the 
power  of  their  enemies,  and  battle  followed  upon  battle  and  there 
was  as  yet  no  sign  of  an  end. 

An  average  Englishwoman  would  look  like  a  houri  amongst 
them  ;  and  their  customs  were  beastly,  to  use  the  mildest  term. 

I  was  jealous  of  her  as  soon  as  I  saw  her;  she  had  light  hair 
and  dark-brown  eyes  and  a  slight  and  graceful  figure. 

I  was  jealous  of  the  girl,  she  was  so  beautiful. 

I  was  jealous — she  was  beautiful. 

She  was  beautiful — I  was  insanely  jealous. 

It  was  near  the  end  of  the  spring  term  of  school :  the  prairie 
grass  brushed  against  their  knees  as  they  rode. 

II.      SYNTAX. 

31.  Concord. — The  rules  of  gnimmatical  concord,,  con- 
cerning the  agreement  of  verb  with  subject,  of  pronoun 
with  antecedent,  etc.,  are  familiar  and  will  not  be  restated 
here.  But  a  few  of  the  more  difficult  and  doubtful  cases 
will  be  discussed  and  several  sources  of  error  noted. 

1.  "Words  intervening  between  the  subject  and  the  verb 
sometimes  cause  a  writer  to  forget  the  number  of  the  sub- 
ject. Or  when  a  compound  subject  is  long  or  complicated 
there  is  danger  of  forgetting  that  it  has  more  than  one 
part,  or  of  allowing  the  verb  to  be  attracted  into  the  num- 
ber of  the  part  that  stands  nearest.     Erroneous : 

The  sudden  apparition  of  many  gold  and  blue  banners  waving 
in  the  sunlight  ivere  striking  in  the  extreme. 

Her  instinctive  sincerity,  and  her  dread  of  doing  anything  that 
might  alienate  her  brother's  affection,  Imjjels  her  to  this  confes- 
sion. 


CONCORD.  123 

2.  The  impulse  to  use  the  third  singular  form  of  the  verb 
with  a  plural  subject  is  peculiarly  strong  whenever  anything 
tends  to  unify  the  subject  in  thought.  Such  errors  as  the 
following  must  be  guarded  against: 

All  sorts  of  experiences  goes  to  make  up  life. 

His  strength  and  training  (jives  him  an  advantage. 

A  compound  subject,  however,  like  the  latter,  leaves 
room  for  doubt.  If  it  constitutes-  a  logical  unit  there  can 
scarcely  be  any  objection  to  making  the  verb  singular. 
Although  Shakespeare's  usage  is  no  criterion,  since  Shake- 
speare sometimes  uses  the  singular  form  of  the  verb  with  a 
distinctly  plural  subject,  yet  when  he  writes,  "My  shame 
and  guilt  confounds  me,"  we  feel  that  there  is  some  defence. 
So  perhaps  when  Macaulay  writes,  "The  poetry  and  elo- 
quence of  the  Augustan  age  was  assiduously  studied." 
Compare  "And  the  flax  and  the  barley  was  smitten  "  (Exo- 
dus ix.  31,  King  James  version).  In  some  cases  there  can  be 
no  question  that  tlie  subject,  though  plural  in  form,  is  wholly 
singular  in  meaning  and  demands  a  singular  verb:  "  Flesh 
and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it "  (Matthew  xvi.  17). 
"  Three  thousand  dollars  is  a  good  round  sum."  In  the 
last  case  the  separate  dollars  are  not  2:)resent  in  thought  at 
all,  nor  yet  the  separate  thousands.  Still,  whenever  there 
is  the  least  doubt  careful  writers  wull  see  that  there  is 
formal  concord,  if  only  to  show  that  they  are  careful,  and 
so  to  heighten  the  reader's  confidence  in  them. 

3.  When  the  verb  precedes  the  subject  there  is  great 
danger  of  false  concord.     Error: 

Here  is  wealth  and  beauty  and  all  that  a  man's  heart  could 
desire. 

However,  in  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and 
the  glory,"  great  emphasis  is  gained  by  distributing  the 
subject  and  compelling  a  pause  for  efi.ch  elided  verb.  It 
should  be  noted  here   that   after   anticipative  it  English 


124  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

idiom  demands  that  the  verb  be  singular,  whereas  after 
there  the  verb  agrees  witli  tlie  subject  to  follow. 

It  was  a  lover  and  his  lass. 

There  were  three  crows  sat  on  a  tree. 

4.  Additions  and  comparisons  connected  with  the  main 
subject  by  such  words  as  ivith,  including,  like,  as  well  as, 
no  less  than,  should  not  be  held  to  affect  the  grammatical 
number  of  the  subject.  The  following  sentences  are  there- 
fore correct: 

Science,  as  well  as  philosophy  and  religion,  takes  this  high 
ground. 

A  course  in  ancient  historj',  with  a  few  lectures  on  art  and 
antiquities,  was  offered  in  the  senior  year. 

Exceptional  cases,  however,  will  arise.  Mr.  John  Nichol 
cites :  "  The  king  with  the  lords  and  commons  form  a  good 
government." 

5.  When  the  subject  and  the  2-)redicate  are  of  different 
numbers  the  verb  should  in  general  agree  with  the  sub- 
ject, though  each  case  must  be  decided  on  its  own  merits. 
It  is  frequently  better  to  avoid  the  collocation  by  recasting 
the  sentence. 

Others'  shortcomings  are  no  excuse  for  our  own. 

6.  Collective  nouns  are  to  be  construed  logically,  though 
always  consistently  in  the  same  sentence. 

The  Committee  on  Entertainment  submits  tlie  following  rec- 
ommendations. 

The  committee  are  not  agreed.  (Better  :  The  members  of  the 
committee  are  not  agreed.) 

Note. — Wages  is  plural.  Molasses  is  singular.  Netrs  is  singular.  Mathemat- 
ics is  usually  singular.  Means  is  either.  Ashes,  oats,  strictly  plural,  are  col- 
lective anil  "may  be  treated  as  singular.  The  forms  liear,  durk-,  etc.,  should  noc 
be  used  (after  the  analogy  of  fi<'ec,  f/)-oi(.s(')  as  eollective  ]>lMraIs;  thus  (wrong) : 
"  Bear  were  jjlentiful."  '■  I  bagj^eil  twenty  duck."  .1  iiuinher  is  used  as  either 
singular  or  plural,  perliai>s  most  fri-iiucnUy  as  singular.  None  (=  no  one)  is 
really  singular,  though  usage  has  established  it  as  a  plural  also. 


CONCORD.  125 

7.  The  distributives  each,  every,  either,  neither,  require  a 
singular  verb;  likewise  any  when  used  with  a  singular 
noun :  any  one,  anyl)ody,  anything. 

Neither  of  them  shows  any  signs  of  fatigue. 

8.  The  indefinite  pronouns  07ie,  anyhody,  everybody,  no- 
body, a  person^  etc.,  should  be  treated  as  singulars  through- 
out. It  is  a  common  error  when  these  indefinite  pronouns 
are  used  as  antecedents  to  throw  the  personal  pronouns  re- 
ferring to  them  into  the  plural  number,  partly  because  of 
their  indefiniteness,  partly  to  escape  making  a  distinction 
of  gender.  Some  writers  have  held  that  they,  their,  and 
them  are  in  this  case  likewise  indefinites  of  common  gender, 
but  this  view  is  not  accepted.  The  word  thon  =  that  one 
has  been  proposed  for  this  office,  but  has  never  been  used. 
The  personal  pronoun,  third  singular  masculine,  is  the  cor- 
rect form,  the  gender  being  considered  common. 

If  any  one  desires  proof  let  him  [not  thein]  come  to  me. 

9.  All  reference-words,  pronominal  or  other,  must  agree 
strictly  with  their  antecedents  in  grammatical  number,  even 
though  the  antecedents  stand  in  a  different  sentence.  This 
rule  is  much  violated  in  treatises  on  natural  history,  wherein 
the  writer,  in  discussing  an  animal  or  plant,  vacillates 
between  the  plural  noun  as  applied  to  the  individuals  and 
the  singular  as  applied  to  the  family  or  species.  Examples 
of  error: 

Tlie  crane  is  a  social  bird.  They  post  sentries  and  send  out 
scouts. 

There  is  usually  but  little  expression  on  a  donkey's  face,  but  oc- 
casionally they  take  on  quite  an  expressive  look. 


126  THB  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

EXERCISE. 

Discuss  the  concord  of  the  following  sentences,  correct- 
ing faults  : 

That,  and  the  society  of  evil  companions,  was  the  cause  of  his 
ruin. 

There  is  tears  for  his  love  ;  joy  for  his  fortune  ;  honor  for  his 
valor  ;  and  death  for  his  ambition. — /.  Ccesar. 

Five  miles  of  the  old  White  trail  were  found  utterly  impassable. 

Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  the  earth,  where  moth 
and  rust  doth  consume,  and  where  thieves  break  tlirough  and 
steal ;  but  lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven,  where 
neither  moth  nor  rust  doth  consume,  and  where  thieves  do  not 
break  through  nor  steal. 

The  number  and  corresponding  influence  of  his  rival's  support- 
ers was  more  than  an  offset  for  his  wealth  and  fame. 

In  this  multiplicity  of  attention  there  was  a  momentary  con- 
fusion and  delay. — Bret  Harte. 

Here  are  light  that  falls  more  like  shade  ;  nameless  colors  thrice 
refracted  through  some  spiritual  medium  ;  divers  appeals  that 
one  knows  to  be  sensuous,  though  he  cannot  name  the  sense  ap- 
pealed to. 

In  both  these  cases  there  is  injustice  and  misrepresentation. 

The  aim  and  end  of  both  Hebraism  and  Hellenism  is,  as  I  have 
said,  one  and  the  same. — Arnold. 

To  the  making  of  the  poems,  as  to  the  making  of  the  essays, 
there  have  gone  vigilant  selection  and  refinemenr. 

A  steady  stream  of  miners,  prospectors,  and  others  are  pouring 
into  the  country. 

One  class  of  writers  have  introduced  the  fabulous  deities. — 
Macaulay. 

Twice  two  is  four. 

Here's  a  few  flowers.  —  Cymheline,  iv,  3. 

For  pastime  tliere  was  cards. 

A  dozen  eggs  costs  twenty  cents. 

There  was  a  score  of  competitors. 

There  was  a  host  of  competitors. 

Household  economics  are  liis  hobby. 


REGIMEN.  127 

A  thousand  desolate  homes  was  the  price  of  oui*  victory. 

About  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  pounds  sterling  was 
distributed  among  nine  of  the  most  powerful  servants  of  the  com- 
pany.— Macaulay  :  Lo7-d  CUoe. 

Sneers  and  gibes  was  all  our  reward. 

The  majority  have  expressed  their  opinion,  and  the  majority 
rules. 

Word  after  word  falls  in  with  the  precision  of  fate. 

Each  of  the  pack-horses  were  laden  with  gold. 

Everybody  in  the  audience  had  their  eyes  glued  upon  the 
speaker. 

Whenever  a  person  acts  in  that  way  you  may  be  sure  they  are 
guilty. 

Whoever  comes  in  here,  the  way  things  are  now,  must  makeup 
their  minds  to  sutfer. 

He  is  one  of  the  fastest  runners  that  has  ever  run  on  our  track, 

There  are  none  so  deaf  as  those  who  will  not  hear. 

None  of  those  acts  which  are  the  real  stains  of  his  life  has 
drawn  on  him  so  much  obloquy  as  this  measure. — Macaulay  : 
Lord  Clive. 

The  rule  here  is,  Everybody  for  themselves. 

The  elk  or  moose  deer  is  the  largest  of  living  Cervidce.  ...  Its 
antlers  attain  their  full  length  by  the  fifth  year,  but  in  after 
years  they  increase  in  breadth  and  in  the  number  of  branches 
until  fourteen  of  these  are  produced.  Although  spending  a  large 
l);irt  of  their  lives  in  forests,  they  do  not  appear  to  suffer  much 
inconvenience  from  the  great  expanse  of  their  antlers. — Ency. 
Britannica. 

He  says  it  is  a  rare  fish,  even  in  Tahiti.  It  nearly  always  bur- 
rows in  the  sand,  raising  a  little  mound  over  itself,  and  is  thus 
tlie  more  dangerous  to  the  native  fishermen,  who  usually  go  bare- 
foot and  are  quite  liable  to  step  on  these  dangerous  hidden  fish. 

32.  Regimen. — The  grammatical  laws  of  case-govern- 
ment we  may  assume  to  be  familiar.  But  some  errors 
cling  tenaciously. 

1.  All  words  in  a  series  must  have  the  case-form  proper 
to  the  first  word;  the  conjuuctious  flW(7,  or,  nor,  etc.,  can- 
not affect  tlie  form. 


128  TBE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  GLAUSES.     • 

Grace,  Ethel,  and  I  [not  me]  took  turns  in  watching. 
Between  you  and  me  [not  I],  he  is  right. 

2.  The  case  of  an  antecedent  pronoun  is  not  affected  by 
the  relative  chiuse. 

Let  him  [not  ?ie]  who  hears  my  words  take  them  to  heart. 

3.  The  regimen  of  a  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun 
introducing  its  clause  needs  watching,  as  it  is  not  easily  felt. 

Whom  [not  who]  are  you  looking  for  ? 

4.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  tlie  accusative  (ob- 
jective) case. 

Whom  should  you  like  to  have  win  ?  I  should  like  to  have 
him  win. 

WJiom  (or  him)  is  the  subject  of  irin,  and  the  whole 
infinitive  clause  whom  (to)  ivin  is  object  of  to  have.  It 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  case  of  whom  or  him  is 
influenced  by  have.     For, 

5.  When  in  indirect  discourse  after  words  of  saying, 
thinking,  etc.,  we  liave  a  finite  verb  the  subject  must  be 
nominative. 

Who  do  you  think  won  ?     I  think  he  won. 

6.  Objection  is  sometimes  made  to  tlie  use  of  the  indirect 
object  of  a  verb  as  the  subject  of  that  verb  in  the  passive 
voice  ;  as,  "He  was  given  three  lashes"  instead  of  "Three 
lashes  were  given  him,"  But  the  mind  accei)ts  the  con- 
struction easily  and  the  objection  seems  finical.  Much 
more  crude  is  the  turning  of  the  object  of  a  preposition 
after  an  intransitive  verb  into  the  subject;  as,  "These 
pillars  were  stood  on  for  years  by  religious  fanatics."  Yet 
we  sometimes  use  such  similar  j)hrases  as  "  He  may  be  relied 
on,"  "  The  principle  is  still  adhered  to,"  in  which  the  verb 
and  preposition  are  felt  to  be  equivalent  to  a  simple  transi- 
tive   verb    (here    trusted,   observed).      Indeed,    these   dis- 


TENSE-RELATIONS.  129 

tinctions  are  too  nice  for  rules  and  may  better  be  left  to 
instinct. 

EXERCISES. 

Fill  out  the  blanks  properly : 

The  decision  affects  both  my  brother  and .     (I,  me.) 

Neither  John  nor realized  what  it  meant,     (he,  him.) 

It  was you  saw  i;pon  the  declc.     (he,  him.) 

you  would  chastise  has  fled.     (She,  Her.) 

who  labor  now  the  master  will  reward.    (They,  Them.) 

,  if  not ,  will  you  elect  as  your  captain  ?     (Who,  Whom; 

he,  him.) 

I  knew  he  was  the  agent had  called  on  us  and  we  had 

bought  the  picture  from,     (who,  wiiom.) 

Do  you  not  think  he  will  be  chosen  rather  than ?    (I,  me.) 

Give  it  to deserves  it  most,     (whosoever,  whomsoever.) 

Give  it  to you  find  there. 

Give  it  to you  feel  needs  it. 

Give  it  to you  think  best. 

•  shall  I  dare  let   take   control  in   my  absence  ?      (Who, 

Whom.) 

He  engaged  a  guide he  thought  could  be  depended  upon. 

He  engaged  a  guide  • he  thought  competent  to  take  them 

through. 

He  engaged  a  guide he  thought  was  competent  to  take 

them  through. 

Discnss : 

He  was  told  nothing. 

She  was  written  at  once. 

We  were  forwarded  three  boxes. 

The  Labor  Bureau  was  next  applied  to. 

Ten  transports  were  sent  to  Key  West. 

Tampa  was  sent  to  for  transports. 

The  lawn  has  been  run  over  by  some  horses. 

The  child  was  run  over  by  a  car. 

The  house  is  overrun  with  rats. 

33.   Tense-relations. — It  will  repay  one  to  stndy  the  dis- 
tinctions  of  meaning  that  frequently  underlie  the  same 


130  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES 

tense-form.  There  are  absolute  tenses  (present,  past, 
future),  and  there  are  relative  tenses  (imperfect,  present 
perfect,  past  perfect,  future  perfect),  and  there  are  relative 
uses  of  the  absolute  tenses.  Besides,  a  present  tense  may- 
represent  oue  point  of  time,  or  many  different  points  of 
time,  or  all  time,  or  even  no  time.  Time  scarcely  enters 
into  the  sentence,  "  CJod  is."  And  consider  the  value  of 
the  tense-forms  in  "Men  die,"  "Men  make  mistakes,"  *'I 
bid  you  good-bye,"  "Say  on;  I  hear."  Let  us  take  a  very 
simple  sentence  :  "He  said  he  knew  he  had  been  wrong." 
Here  is  one  absolutely  past  tense,  another  past  in  form  but 
relatively  present  to  the  past,  and  a  third  relatively  past  to 
the  relative  present.  AVhat  he  said  Avas,  "  I  know  I  have 
been  wrong."  The  verbs  have  been  attracted  into  the 
past  by  tlie  influence  of  "said."  For  a  delicate  discrimi- 
nation between  the  values  of  similar  tense-forms  the 
student  is  referred  to  the  selection  from  Stevenson,  Appen- 
dix C  XIX  6,  7.  Mark  the  distinction  between  "Durst  I 
address,"  "Was  I  going,"  "Who  was  I,"  and  "I  doffed 
my  caj),"  "He  nodded,"  "'  I  said" — all  jDast  in  form. 

1.  Past  and  Imjierfect. — In  narration  the  simple  past 
fixes  the  time  of  the  event  to  which  attention  is  called. 
The  imperfect  is  used  for  all  occurrences  grouped  about  this 
event  and  synchronous  with  it,  the  past  perfect  for  occur- 
rences anterior  to  it.  The  time  of  a  simple  past  tense  is  to 
be  defined  only  by  a  date;  the  time  of  an  imperfect  or  per- 
fect tense  is  to  be  understood  by  reference  to  some  major 
event.  The  lack  of  a  sj)ecific  date  is  j)ainfully  apparent, 
for  example,  in  the  following  introduction  of  an  essay: 

Clay  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  all  parts  of  the  Italian 

peninsula,  and  to  it   the   people  in  search  of  building  material 

naturally  turned ;  it  was  of  many  shades  of  red,  yellow,  and 
brown. 

\i    the    time    meant   is    universally  past,    then    the  tense 


TENSE-RELATIONS.  131 

should  be  ''have  turned."'  As  the  imperfect  tense-form  in 
English  is  somewhat  awkward,  it  is  largely  supplanted  by 
the  simple  past,  so  tliat  past  events  grouped  together  are 
narrated  for  the  most  part  in  simple  past  tenses,  with  often 
some  distinguishing  word  or  phrase  to  point  out  the  cen- 
tral-event if  there  be  such-  It  is  clear,  however,  that  if  a 
perfect  or  imperfect  tense  be  used  first  it  will  keep  one  in 
suspense  waiting  for  the  event  of  prime  interest.  Study 
the  tenses  in  the  following  selection.  Other  good  examples 
may  be  found  in  the  narrative  selections  in  Appendix  C 

XV,  XVI,  XIX,  XXII. 

Tlie  suspense  was  terrible.  Sam'l  and  Sanders  had  both 
known  all  along  that  Bell  would  take  the  first  of  the  two  who 
asked  her.  Even  those  who  thought  her  proud  admitted  that  she 
was  modest.  Bitterly  the  weaver  repented  having  waited  so  long. 
Now  it  was  too  late.  In  ten  minutes  Sanders  would  be  at  T'now- 
head  ;  in  an  hour  all  would  be  over.  Sam'l  rose  to  his  feet  in  a 
daze.  His  mother  pulled  him  down  by  the  coat-tail,  and  his 
father  shook  him,  thinking  he  was  walking  in  his  sleep.  He 
tottered  past  them,  however,  hurried  up  the  aisle,  which  was  so 
narrow  that  Dan'l  Ross  could  only  reach  his  seat  by  walking  side- 
ways, and  was  gone  before  the  minister  could  do  more  than  stop 
in  the  middle  of  a  whirl  and  gape  in  horror  after  him. — J.  M. 
Barbie  :  Auld  Licht  Idylls. 

2.  Historical  Present. — The  present  tense  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  narration  of  past  events.  As  it  is  an  imagina- 
tive device,  it  requires  some  imaginative  gift  to  carry  it 
through  successfully.  The  unpractised  writer  will  do  well 
to  avoid  it.  For  he  is  likely,  through  failure  to  conceive 
the  situation  vividly,  to  find  himself  relapsing  into  simple 
past  tenses,  and  he  is  almost  certain  to  have  difficulty  in 
making  the  transition  from  one  tense-form  to  another. 
The  two  forms  should  not  be  mingled  indiscriminately  in  the 
same  passage.  At  best  the  historical  present  should  be 
employed  sparingly,  never  after  the  lavish  manner  of  writers 


132  TEE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

for  cheap  story-papers.  It  is  only  a  veliicle  of  strong  emo- 
tion— it  cannot  create  the  emotion.  Carlyle's  continual 
use  of  it  in  his  French  Revolution  must  find  explanation 
and  justification  in  the  intensely  earnest,  high- wrought 
soul  of  Carlyle,     Take  one  passage  as  an  example: 

A  memorable  night,  this  Fourth  of  August  :  Dignitaries  tem- 
poi-al  and  spiritual ;  Peers,  Archbishops,  Parlement-Presidents, 
each  outdoing  the  other  in  patriotic  devotedness,  come  successive- 
ly to  throw  their  now  untenable  possessions  on  the  "  altar  of  the 
fatherland."  With  louder  and  louder  vivats, — for  indeed  it  is 
"after  dinner"  too — they  abolish  Tithes,  Seignorial  Dues,  Ga- 
belle,  excessive  Preservation  of  Game  ;  nay  Privilege,  Immunity, 
Feudalism  root  and  branch  ;  then  appoint  a  Te  Deum  for  it  ;  and 
so,  finally,  disperse  about  three  in  the  morning,  striking  the  stars 
with  their  sublime  heads.  Such  night,  unforeseen  but  forever 
memorable,  was  this  of  the  Fourth  of  August,  1789. 

See  also  the  passage  from  Knight's  England,  cited  under 
13,  4. 

3.  Future :  Shall  and  Will. — Perhaps  the  only  difficulty 
to  be  met  with  in  the  use  of  the  future  tense  is  the  distinc- 
tion between  shall  and  loill — a  distinction  that  threatens  to 
disappear  in  spite  of  all  that  rhetoricians  can  do.  Both 
words  indicate  future  action.  But  shall  is  used  with  refer- 
ence to  the  standpoint  of  the  speaker,  will  with  reference 
to  the  standpoint  of  the  actor.  Of  myself  I  say,  "  I  shall 
go."  Of  you  when  I,  the  speaker,  control  the  action  I 
say,  "  You  shall  go."  Of  my  enemies  I  say,  "  They  shall 
suffer."  Of  the  rain  God  says,  "It  shall  rain."  But 
when  the  actor  alone  is  in  question:  "You  will  not  like 
him. "  "  They  will  be  at  the  station."  "  The  weather  will 
be  fine."  The  speaker  has  nothing  to  do  with  these  cases 
beyond  uttering  a  simple  prediction.  In  the  first  person, 
however,  the  matter  is  complicated  because  the  speaker  and 
the  actor  are  the  same.  It  might  be  said  that  even  here 
shall  represents  the  intellectual  part  of  the  man,  the  think- 


TENSE-RELATT0N8.  133 

ing  and  knowing  part,  as  speaking  ("I  shall  never  get 
well,"  ''  I  shall  hardly  arrive  so  early"),  while  tvill  vouches 
for  the  action  by  representing  the  volitional  part  as  speaking 
the  part  that  is  intimately  concerned  with  action  ("I  will 
get  well,"  "  I  will  be  there  at  tlie  appointed  time,"  "  Since 
you  desire  it  so  very  much,  I  will  come.")  But  after  all 
these  distinctions  are  too  nice  and  too  confusing  for 
ordinary  guidance.  In  the  meantime,  until  our  sense  is 
trained  to  the  appreciation  of  them,  Ave  can  do  no  better  than 
fall  back  on  the  old  rule:  For  simple  futurity  use  shall  in 
the  first  person,  tvill  in  the  second  and  third  persons;  for 
determination,  command,  willingness,  reverse  this  usage. 
In  a  question  use  the  form  that,  according  to  the  rule, 
belongs  to  the  answer.  In  indirect  quotations  use  the 
form  that  would  be  used  in  the  direct.  Make  the  same 
distinctions  between  sliould  and  would  as  between  shall  and 
raill.  The  following  examples  will  help  to  make  the  matter 
clear : 

I  tvill  go,  I  say  to  myself  after  deliberation.  And  to  the  per- 
son who  has  invited  me  I  say,  "  I  will  go — you  have  my  answer." 
This  being  settled,  I  now  tell  others — 

I  shall  go.  If  any  one  opposes  me  I  reassert  my  determination, 
"I  will  go." 

Yotc  tvill  go,  I  feel  sure.    You  will  not  ?    Oh,  but  you  must — 

Yott  shall  go,  I  shall  compel  you.  (When  a  man  says  to  his 
coachman,  "  You  will  meet  me  at  the  five-o'clock  train,"  lie  puts 
it  thus  out  of  courtesy.) 

He  will  repent.     I  predict  it. 

He  shall  repent  of  his  deed.  I  am  determined  to  make  him 
repent. 

It  tvill  rain,  I  think  ;  indeed  the  indications  make  me  quite 
positive. 

It  shall  rain  ;  for  I  am  a  rain-maker. 

There  shall  no  man  come  dotmi  against  you,  for  the  Lord  hath 
told  me.     I  speak  with  authority. 


134:  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Shall  I  go?  Consultation  with  self.  Self  decides,  "You 
shall,''  or,  speaking  in  his  proper  person,  "I  will." 

SJiall  I  go  ?  A  request  for  directions.  The  one  in  authority 
answers,  "  You  shall." 

Will  I  go  ?  Do  you  ask  me  ?  Repetition  of  question  from  point 
of  view  of  second  person.     Answer,  "  I  will." 

Shall  you  go  f  What  is  your  (already  settled)  intention  ?  An- 
swer, "I  shall." 

Will  you  go  ?  I  invite  you,  I  want  you — it  is  for  you  to  express 
your  determination.  (Also  used  without  explicit  desire  on  the 
speaker's  part  if  there  has  as  yet  been  no  chance  for  decision  on 
the  second  person's  part ;  thus  :  "  Will  you  have  a  cup  of  tea  ?  ") 

Shall  you  defy  me  thus  f  Assumed  authority;  rhetorical  ques- 
tion. The  speaker  answers  himself,  "  You  shall  not."  Compare, 
"  Shalt  thou  reign  because  thou  closest  thyself  in  cedar  ?  "  (Jer. 
xxii.  15.) 

Will  he  go  ?  Asking  after  intention  of  third  person.  Second 
or  first  person  answers,  "  He  will." 

Shall  he  go  ?  Asking  for  determination  of  second  or  first  per- 
son.    Answer,  "  He  shall." 

Will  it  he  done  ?     Asking  for  information. 

Shall  it  be  done  ?     Asking  for  directions. 

Will  lie  die  ?    Of  a  sick  or  injured  man. 

Shall  he  die  ?     Of  a  traitor. 

Will  he  usurp  my  throne  f    Anxious  question. 

Shall  he  usurp  my  throne  f    Angry  question. 

He  says  I  shall  go.     His  words  w^ere,  "  You  shall  go." 

He  said  you  loordd  go.     His  words  were,  "  He  will  go." 

He  said  he  sJiould  go.     His  words  were,  "  I  shall  go." 

4.  Tense-atlraction. — The  last  two  examples  preceding 
illustrate  a  general  law  of  tense-forms,  viz.,  that  after 
a  past  tense  in  a  governing  clause  the  verb  of  a  depend- 
ent clause  is  attracted  into  the  same  tense-form.  This 
is  only  a  general  law;  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  give 
rules  for  all  cases,  and  many  must  be  decided  somewhat 
arbitrarily.  The  matter  is  more  safely  left  to  logic.  Two 
cases,  however,  require  notice. 


TENSE-RELATIONS.  135 

When  the  dependent  clause  expresses  a  still  present  fact 
or  a  general  truth  true  independently  of  time  the  tense- 
form  should  not  be  changed.     Examples : 

He  admitted  that  Shelley  is  a  great  lyric  poet. 
He  tried  to  prove  that  animal  food  is  deleterious. 

If,  however,  the  writer  desires  to  avoid  any  suspicion  of 
sanctioning  the  statement  he  may  prefer  to  change  the 
tense,  thus,  '^  He  asserted  that  Shelley  was  a  great  lyric 
poet" — which  throws  the  assertion  wholly  upon  the  au- 
thority of  the  third  person.  Or  if  the  statement  held  true 
only  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  main  verb  the  tense  must 
accord  with  it  :  "  He  asserted  that  Shelley  was  the  greatest 
lyric  poet  England  had  yet  seen."  "  He  declared  that  it 
was  dangerous  for  men  in  their  condition  to  use  animal 
food." 

The  tenses  of  infinitives  and  participles  are  always  rela- 
tive. Therefore  they  should  not  change  form  under  the 
influence  of  a  past  verb.  They  will  have  a  past  form  only 
when  the  time  indicated  is  relatively  ^as^  to  the  time  of  the 
main  verb. 

He  hoped  to  arrive  first. 
I  counted  on  doing  my  best. 

He  was  known  to  have  been  present  on  several  previous  occa- 
sions. 

I  suspected  him  of  having  opened  the  letter. 

EXERCISE. 

What  is  the  exact  significance  of  the  verb-forms  in  the 
following  sentences  ?     Correct  such  as  are  wrong. 

Who  shall  capture  the  guns  on  the  left  ? 

Will  any  volunteer  ? 

The  finder  will  be  rewarded. 

He  said  I  should  keep  watch. 

The  governor  promised  that  he  would  send  the  despatches, 


136  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Parma,  however,  promised  that  his  army  should  go  on  board 
immediately. 

Who  will  work  this  problem  for  me  ? 

"Who  shall  estimate  the  influence  of  so  many  examples  of  fraud 
in  high  places  ? 

They  will  never  tempt  me  to  supplicate  for  anything  but  jus- 
tice, and  that  in  behalf  of  others. — Landor. 

The  day  shall  not  be  up  so  soon  as  I. — K.  John.,  v.  5, 

I  am  resolved, — so  help  me,  God  !— he  shall  have  no  farther 
cause  for  his  repining. ^ — Landor. 

They  said  I  should  run  up  to  their  rooms  and  wait  till  they 
came. 

0  mother  !  and  did  I  not  tell  thee  what  she  was  ? — patient  in 
injury,  proud  in  innocence,  serene  in  grief  ! — Landor. 

He  confessed  himself  at  an  entire  loss  what  to  do  or  where  to 
go  if  he  was  overtaken  by  a  storm.— Froude. 

"  Do  you  remember  my  father  ? "  he  asked.  Yes,  I  remembered 
him. 

It  was  in  their  place  to  have  undertaken  the  collection  of  dues. 

You  ought  to  have  known  better  than  to  have  attempted  such  a 
foolhardy  feat. 

1  had  hoped  that  I  would  have  received  a  letter  before  to-day. 
It  has  been  my  fortune  to  have  been  a  groom  in  a  large  stable. 
1  should  have  thought  you  would  have  wanted  to  have  sat  down 

and  rested. 

There  was  only  one  nation  Napoleon  never  could  beat,  and  that 
was  the  English  ;  though  he  very  much  wanted  to  have  come  over 
here  with  a  great  fleet  and  army,  and  have  conquered  our  island. 
— Charlotte  M.  Yonge. 

I  could  not  have  imagined  that  it  would  have  been  necessary  for 
me  to  have  said  that  the  execrable  trash  entitled  "  Tears  of  Sensi- 
bility "  was  merely  a  burlesque  on  the  style  of  the  magazine  verses 
of  the  day. — Macaulay  in  a  letter  to  his  mother. 

34.  Participles  and  Participial  Clauses. — The  particii^lc 
is  valuable  as  a  means  of  subordination,  and  as  a  means  of 
grouping  about  a  central  event  activities  that  are  closely 
related.  In  fullilliiig  this  last  function  it  often  takes  the 
place  of  the  sonunvliat  cumbersome  imperfect  and  perfect 


PARTICIPLES  AND  PARTICIPIAL   CLAUSES.     137 

(relative)  tenses  of  the  finite  verb.  But  the  participle  is  in 
itself  somewhat  cumbersome,  and  tlie  successful  use  of  it 
requires  both  care  and  skill.  It  may  not  be  used  in  Eng- 
lish with  any  such  freedom  as  is  proper  to  the  Latin  and 
Greek  languages. 

1.  The  Attached  Particij)le. — As  the  participle  is  a 
dependent  form,  an  effort  should  always  be  made  to  see  that 
its  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence  will  be  readily 
a])parent.  In  general  the  reader  has  a  right  to  assume 
that  a  participial  clause  whose  bearing  is  not  made  imme- 
diately clear  qualifies  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause 
in  which  it  stands.  Of  course  participles  may  be  freely  at- 
tached to  other  elements  of  the  sentence  when  those  ele- 
ments have  special  emphasis,  or  when  the  participle  is  so 
situated  that  it  cannot  be  misconstrued.  The  skilful  use 
of  the  participle  is  illustrated  in  the  first  two  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  the  less  careful  use  in  the  second  two,  and 
the  inexcusably  careless  in  the  last  two : 

Travelling  fraternally  in  the  same  litter  with  Aurelius,  Lucius 
Verus  was  struck  with  sudden  and  mysterious  disease,  and  died 
as  he  hastened  back  to  Rome. — Pater. 

On  them,  elated  as  they  were  by  their  early  success,  the  disap- 
pointment fell  with  crushing  force. 

To  Marius  the  whole  of  life  seemed  full  of  sacred  presences,  de- 
manding of  him  a  similar  collectedness.. — Pater. 

I  spent  three  years  in  the  town  where  he  lives,  engaged  in  the 
lumber  business. 

Pure  maple-sugar  is  granular,  and  when  broken  you  can  see  the 
sugar-crystals  standing  out. 

Having  so  lately  quitted  the  tumults  of  a  party  and  the  intrigues 
of  a  court,  they  still  kept  his  thoughts  in  agitation, — S.  Johnson  : 
Life  of  Swift. 

2.  The  Detached  Participle. — A  substantive  and  a  par- 
ticiple may  stand  in  a  sentence  and  yet  be  grammatically 
independent  of  the  sentence — that  is,  without  any  expressed 


138  THE  SSINTSNCE  A^B  ITS  CLAUSES. 

relation  to  it.  This  is  known  as  tlie  absolute  construction. 
It  is  frequent  in  Latin,  much  less  so  in  Englisli.  It  cer- 
tainly has  a  value  that  is  not  to  be  disregarded,  but  it  is 
usually  difficult  to  manage,  and,  except  in  its  elliptical 
forms,  it  tends  to  make  a  sentence  seem  slow  and  labored. 
The  copula  or  auxiliary  portion  {being,  having  been)  may 
sometimes  be  omitted  with  good  effect,  but  very  rarely  the 
substantive  portion.  The  omission  of  this  last,  leaving  a 
wholly  unattached  participle,  is  perhajis  the  most  common 
error.  In  every  case,  too,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
unexpressed  relation  of  the  clause,  whether  instrumental, 
temporal,  causal,  concessive,  or  other,  be  clear.  The  correct 
use  of  the  absolute  construction  is  illustrated  in  the  first 
tliree  of  the  following  examples,  the  incorrect  use  in  the 
last  two : 

The  wind  rising,  the  captain  ordered  all  sails  set  and  started  iu 
pursuit. 

The  original  land-grants  to  settlers  having  been  large,  the  wheat- 
ranches  are  to-day  mostly  large  in  extent. 

The  breakfast  over,  he  walked  away  with  the  learned  guest. 

Looking  straight  upward,  small  patches  of  blue  sky  were  visible 
among  the  tree-tops. 

Having  deposited  the  bundles  in  the  hollow  tree,  the  last  stage 
of  the  journey  was  speedily  accomplished. 

3.  There  is  one  adverb  of  degree,  very,  that  good  usage 
no  longer  admits  as  modifier  of  the  perfect  participle. 
3Iuck  or  well  should  be  inserted.  The  adverb  too  is  likewise 
not  always  admissible  here.  When,  however,  the  participle 
comes  to  be  felt  as  a  simple  adjective  these  modifiers  are 
allowed. 

We  were  very  disappointed  because  you  did  not  come.     (Bad.j 

He  was  too  elated  to  care.     (Doubtful.) 

His  disapprobation  was  very  marked.     (Admissible.) 


PARTICIPLES  AND  PARTICIPIAL   CLAUSES.     139 

EXERCISES. 

Criticise  the  use  of  participles: 

1.  The  powdery  mildew  has  done  no  little  damage  to  the  grape- 
vines. If  allowed  full  sway  the  flower  will  drop  off  and  the  fruit 
will  never  set. 

She  loves  to  listen  to  him  read,  telling  of  the  countries  beyond 
the  seas. 

Going  home,  the  wind  blew  a  gale  and  the  small  tug  was  tossed 
about  like  a  cork. 

While  Mr.  Hamerton  was  not,  perhaps,  a  genius,  he  was  cer- 
tainly a  man  of  the  highest  talents,  improved  to  the  utmost. 

There  were  three  or  four  clearings  on  the  western  shore  ;  but 
after  passing  these  the  lake  became  wholly  primeval,  and  looked 
to  us  as  it  did  to  the  first  adventurous  Frenchman  who  paddled 
across  it. — Lowell  :   A  Moosehead  Journal. 

2.  Looking  westward,  the  sharp  outlines  of  Pike's  Peak  can  be 
seen. 

In  glancing  over  a  printed  page  the  paragraph  division  is  the 
first  thing  that  catches  the  eye. 

Magic  thus  affording  him  no  consolation,  and  reaching  the 
point  of  despair,  Faust  contemplates  suicide. 

He  was  standing,  the  hood  partly  drawn  over  his  face,  beside 
the  holy  well. 

3.  I  am  very  pleased  to  make  your  acquaintance. 
Bess  was  very  insulted  at  Tommy's  laughter. 

The  country  was  too  pleased  with  liim  and  too  proud  of  him  to 
pay  any  special  attention  to  these  momentary  ebullitions  of  dis- 
satisfaction.— LouNSBURY  :   J.  F.  Cooper. 

4.  Take  for  a  general  study  and  criticism  of  particij)les 
the  following  passage : 

At  the  head  of  the  procession  the  master  of  ceremonies,  quietly 
waving  back  the  assistants,  made  way  for  a  number  of  women, 
scattering  perfumes.  They  were  succeeded  by  a  company  of 
musicians,  piping  and  twanging,  on  instruments  the  strangest 
Marius  had  ever  beheld,  the  notes  of  a  hymn,  narrating  the  first 
origin  of  this  votive  rite  to  a  choir  of  youths,  who  marched 
behind  them  singing  it.     The  tire-women  and  other  personal  at- 


140  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

tendants  of  the  great  goddess  came  next,  bearing  the  instruments 
of  their  ministry,  and  various  articles  from  the  sacred  wardrobe, 
wrought  of  the  most  precious  material ;  some  of  them  with  long 
ivory  combs,  plying  their  hands  in  wild  yet  graceful  concert  of 
movement  as  they  went,  in  devout  mimicry  of  the  toilet.  Placed 
in  their  rear  were  the  mirror-bearers  of  the  goddess,  carrying 
large  miri'ors  of  beaten  brass  or  silver,  turned  in  such  a  way  as  to 
reflect  to  the  great  body  of  worshippers  who  followed  the  face  of 
the  mysterious  image,  as  it  moved  on  its  way,  and  their  faces  to 
it,  as  though  they  were  in  fact  advancing  to  meet  the  heavenly 
visitor.  They  comprehended  a  multitude  of  both  sexes  and  of  all 
ages,  already  initiated  into  the  divine  secret,  clad  in  fair  linen, 
the  females  veiled,  the  males  with  shining  tonsures,  and  every 
one  carrying  a  sistrum — the  richer  sort  of  silver,  a  few  very 
dainty  persons  of  fine  gold — rattling  the  reeds,  with  a  noise  like 
the  jargon  of  innumerable  birds  and  insects  awakened  from 
torpor  and  abroad  in  the  spring  sun.  Then,  borne  upon  a  kind  of 
platform,  came  the  goddess  herself,  undulating  above  the  heads 
of  the  multitude  as  the  bearers  walked,  in  mystic  robe  embroid- 
ered with  the  moon  and  stars,  bordered  gracefully  with  a  fringe 
of  real  fruit  and  flowers,  and  with  a  glittering  crown  upon  the 
head.  The  train  of  the  procession  consisted  of  the  priests  in  long 
white  vestments,  close  from  head  to  foot,  distributed  into  various 
groups,  each  bearing,  exposed  aloft,  one  of  the  sacred  symbols  of 
Isis — the  corn-fan,  the  golden  asp,  the  ivory  hand  of  equity,  and 
among  them  the  votive  ship  itself,  carved  and  gilt,  and  adorned 
bravely  with  flags  flying.  Last  of  all  walked  the  high  priest;  the 
people  kneeling  as  he  passed  to  kiss  his  hand,  in  which  were  those 
well-remembered  roses. — Pater  :  Mart  us  the  Epicurean. 

35.  Infinitives. — The  value  of  tlie  tenses  of  the  infini- 
tive has  already  been  pointed  out  (33,  4),  and  the  danger 
of  allowing  the  infinitive  to  be  attracted  into  the  wrong 
tense-form  has  been  illustrated.  Several  other  cautions 
are  needed. 

1.  After  the  verbs  hid,  dare,  feel,  have,  hear,  help,  let, 
make,  see,  the  infinitive  is  usually  found  without  the  toj 


INFINITIVES.  141 

also  after  need  when  used  in  questions  or  with  a  negative 
or  restrictive  word.     There  is  much  variation,  however. 

I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man. 

We  need  not  fear  who  knows  it. 

We  scarcely  need  lift  a  finger  and  our  wish  is  obeyed. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  "Let  us  go  see"  means 
"^Let  us  go  to  see"  or  "Let  us  go  and  see."  "Try  and 
remember"  is  a  pretty  well  established  idiom. 

2.  Ehetoricians  have  long  inveighed  against  the  cleft 
infinitive,  against  separating  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  to, 
from  the  verb.  One  critic  says  of  an  offending  writer: 
"He  splits  infinitives  with  the  barbarous  glee  of  an  Indian 
splitting  skulls."  A  few  authorities  defend  the  usage,  and 
there  certainly  are  cases  where  clearness  seems  to  demand 
the  construction.  But  when  one  has  formed  the  habit  of 
putting  modifying  adverbs  before  or  after  the  infinitive 
one  will  come  to  see  the  decided  gain  in  force  and  elegance 
and  will  let  nothing  but  the  claims  of  clearness  interfere 
witli  the  practice.  The  following  examples,  therefore,  are 
not  commended  for  imitation : 

I  set  these  words  down  deliberately  to  express  a  sportive  deli- 
cacy in  our  author  which  it  is  not  possible  to  greatly  exaggerate. 
— Joel  Benton. 

Hubert  was  determined  to  energetically  and  on  all  possible 
occasions  oppose  any  attempt  to  entangle  him  with  such. — Cited 
by  Andrew  Lang  :  How  to  Fail  in  Literature,  \>.  25. 

You  have  married  at  last,  you  tell  me,  and  have  wisely  taiien 
advantage  of  the  fact  to  not  let  me  forget  you  entirely.  [Here, 
however,  "not  to  let"  might  for  a  moment  mislead  the  reader  as 
to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.] 

3.  The  infinitive  in  ~ing  is  a  verbal  noun,  and  is  care- 
fully to  be  distinguished  from  the  participle  of  the  same 
form,  which  is  adjectival  in  force.  Although  by  virtue  of 
its  verbal  character  it  may  take  an  object,  it  is  yet  gov- 
erned in  itself  like  a  noun.     Accordingly  in  sentences  like 


142  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

the  following  the  prououn  used  before  the  infinitive  should 
have  the  possessive-case  form,  since  it  qualifies  the  infini- 
tive. 

The  teacher  does  not  approve  of  their  sitting  on  the  front  seat. 
[Not  them  sitting.] 

I  witnessed  his  walking  the  tight  rope. 

Of  course  the  pronoun  may  stand  in  the  objective  case 
provided  it  is  the  real  object  of  the  verb  and  the  form  in 
-ing  is  a  participle  qualifying  the  pronoun.  It  will  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  sense  is  very  different.  Compare 
with  the  above  the  following: 

I  took  a  photograph  of  them  sitting  on  the  bank. 

I  saw  him  walking  the  rope. 

When  a  transitive  infinitive  in  -ing  is  qualified  by  an 
article  it  is  treated  almost  wholly  like  a  noun,  and  the 
object  following  is  usually  governed  by  inserting  the  prepo- 
sition of.  Such  is  also  frequently  the  case  when  the 
infinitive  is  limited  by  a  possessive,  occasionally  when  it  is 
not  limited  at  all. 

An  old  abusing  of  God's  patience  and  the  king's  English. — 
Merry  Wives,  i,  4. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  ordering  of  clauses. 

In  a  moment  you  will  witness  the  acrobat's  performing  of  a 
diflScult  feat.  [But,  We  saw  him  performiwj  a  difficult  feat. 
In  the  first  case  performing  =  performance.] 

What  dost  thou  mean  by  shaking  of  thy  head  ? — K.  John,  ni,  1. 

EXERCISES. 

Discuss  infinitive  constructions  in  the  following,  cor- 
recting errors: 

1.  What  need  you  be  so  boisterous  rough  ? — K.  John,  iv,  1. 

Thou  oughtest  not  to  let  thy  horse  wear  a  cloak. — 2  Henry 
VI.,  IV. 

It  becomes  of  vast  importance  to  see  whether  or  not  the  things 
around  us  are,  in  general,  such  as  to  help  and  elicit  our  best  self. 
— Arnold  :  Culture  and  Anarchy. 


MIXED  CONSTRUCTIONS.  143 

And  now  to  try  and  trace  these  iu  the  composite  English 
genius. — Arnold  :  Celtic  Literature. 

2.  It  is  sufficient  to  more  than  compensate  for  all  our  losses. 
He  sends  to  again  beg  Camilla  to  become  his  wife. 

I  shall  never  be  able  to  one-millionth  part  atone  for  what  I 
have  done. 

So  I  will  venture  to  humbly  offer  myself  as  an  illustration. — 
Arnold  :  Culture  and  Anarchy. 

[They]  would  be  careful  on  their  part  not,  in  disparaging  and 
discrediting  the  false  culture,  to  unwittingly  disparage  and  dis- 
credit, among  a  people  with  little  natural  reverence  for  it,  the 
true  also.— /6^■(^. 

3.  That,  however,  will  not  prevent  their  doing,  in  the  end, 
good  service  if  they  persevere. — Arnold  :  Culture  and  Anarchy. 

He  leads  his  disciples  to  believe  .  .  .  that  the  having  a  vote, 
like  the  having  a  large  family,  or  a  large  business,  or  large 
muscles,  has  in  it  some  edifying  and  perfecting  effect  upon 
human  nature. — Ibid. 

What  would  you  say  to  James  going  with  you  ? 

Can  we  send  any  one  to  Paris  without  it  becoming  known  all 
over  the  camp  ? 

The  drying  up  a  single  tear  has  more 

Of  honest  fame  than  shedding  seas  of  gore. — Byron. 

I  shall  always  carry  with  me  the  recollection  of  his  galloping 
down  the  hill  to  certain  death. 

In  the  case  of  Danjuro,  after  the  usual  greetings  by  the  ser- 
vants at  the  entrance  and  taking  off  my  shoes,  I  was  asked  into  a 
large  room. 

There  was  no  end  to  the  congratulations,  shaking  hands, 
embraces,  and  inextinguishable  laughter. 

Many  find  much  fault  with  the  calling  professing  Christians, 
that  differ  one  from  another  in  some  matters  of  opinion,  by  dis- 
tinct names. — ^Isaac  Taylor. 

36.  Mixed  Constructions. — When  two  or  more  phrases 
similarly  constructed  are  used  in  tlie  same  connection  one 
is  often  abbreviated,  since  the  omitted  portion  can  easily 
be  supplied  from  the  other.     For  example,  we  say  :   "  He 


144  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

is  as  steady  of  hand,  as  bright  of  eye,  as  keen  of  intellect, 
as  any  young  man  of  thirty,"  and  it  is  clear  that  the  last 
as  does  duty  for  three,  completing  each  of  tlie  three  com- 
parisons. When,  however,  the  phrases  are  dissimilar  in 
form  no  such  abbreviation  can  take  place,  as  any  attempt 
to  complete  one  phrase  from  the  other  would  result  in  a 
false  construction. 

1.  Error  may  arise  from  overlooking  the  fact  that  the 
use  of  an  auxiliary  or  that  a  change  of  auxiliary  carries 
with  it  a  different  form  of  the  verb.  Sometimes,  too,  the 
verb  to  be  supplied  is  of  a  different  number  or  person  from 
the  verb  expressed.  The  remedy  in  every  case  is  simply  to 
repeat  the  verb,  supplying  the  needed  form. 

If  the  mother  needs  all  this,  how  much  more  will  the  teacher. 
[Add  need  it.] 

This  was  then  mixed  with  straw  and  the  bricks  shaped  in 
wooden  frames  or  moulds.     [Supply  were  after  bricks.] 

2.  Comparisons  are  a  fruitful  source  of  errors  of  this 
kind. 

Worcester's  dictiouary  may  be  as  good  but  it  is  no  better  than 
Webster's. 

Here  we  may  supply  the  missing  correlative  as,  but  the  re- 
sulting construction,  while  precise,  is  awkward.  We  get  a 
better  result  by  completing  the  first  comparison  and  omit- 
ting the  correlative  than  of  the  second;  thus: 

Worcester's  dictionary  may  be  as  good  as  Webster's,  but  it  is  no 
better. 

It  would  seem  that  all  elisions  of  this  nature  are  more  tol- 
erable at  the  end  of  a  clause  or  sentence  than  in  the  mid- 
dle. See,  for  example,  a  sentence  written  just  above,  "  It 
is  clear  that  the  last  as  does  duty  for  three  [as's]." 

Constructions  proper  to  comparatives  and  those  proper 
to  superlatives  are  often  mixed.  The  words  used  after  a 
comparative  to  denote   the  class  with  which  anything  is 


MIXED   CONSTRUCTIONS.  145 

compared  should  be  so  framed  as  to  exclude  the  subject  of 
comparison;  the  words  used  after  a  superlative  should  in- 
clude the  subject  of  comparison.  The  following  sentences 
are  therefore  incorrect.  Correctness  can  usually  be  secured 
by  supplying  some  such  word  as  other  or  similar  after 
a  comparative,  and  by  avoiding  any  such  word  after  a 
superlative. 

He  probably  combines  in  himself  more  qualities  of  greatness 
than  any  man  now  living. 

That  was  the  most  trying  ordeal  I  ever  experienced  before  or 
since. 

Note. — When  comparisons  are  expressed  negatively  or  restrictively  so  is 
preferred  to  as  as  the  fir.st  member  of  the  correlative  phrase.  Sometimes,  as 
in  a  question,  a  very  dehcate  distinction  can  be  made  by  observing  this  usage. 

The  day  shall  not  be  up  so  soon  as  I. — K.  John,  v,  5. 

Something  ;  and  scarce  so  much :  nothing,  indeed. — AlVs  Well,  ii,  5. 

Is  any  man  here  so  base  as  he  ? 

3.  Idiom  frequently  recpiires  that  words  similar  in  mean- 
ing be  followed  by  different  prepositional  phrases.  When 
such  constructions  arise  each  phrase  should  be  expressed 
in  full,  or  at  least  such  joortions  of  each  as  differ.     Bad : 

After  his  purpose  is  served  he  is  willing  and  even  desirous  of 
getting  rid  of  his  so-called  friend. 

EXERCISES. 

Criticise  the  following  constructions: 

1.  If  you  have  not  yet  you  certainly  ought  to  see  it. 

He  was  persuaded,  you  bribed. 

I  have  not  loved  the  world,  nor  the  world  me. — Byron. 

All  three  were  accused,  but  only  one  convicted. 

Nearer,  the  ferry-boats  were  going  in  and  out  at  short  inter  ^^als, 
and  here  and  there  a  small  launch,  which  with  her  shrill  whistle 
paid  her  respects  to  the  giant  tug  with  her  convoy  which  she  was 
taking  out  to  sea. 

It  has  at  least  been  scientifically  established  that  the  summit  of 


146  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS   CLAUSES. 

the  famous   "  enchantod  mesa"  is  uninhabited,  and,   as  far  as 
Professor  Libbj^'s  partj'  could  discover,  it  has  never  been. 

2.  Since  the  coast  region  is  neither  so  cold  in  winter  nor  so 
warm  in  summer,  it  is  a  much  more  desirable  place  to  live  in  than 
the  interior. 

Thus  Indian  finances  would  be  in  a  position  as  bad  if  not  worse 
than  before. 

The  Yukon  is  said  to  be  only  second  if  not  the  peer  of  the 
"  Father  of  Waters." 

This  after  all  w^as  as  much  or  more  than  Elizabeth  had  a  right 
to  expect. — Froude. 

One  of  the  worst  if  not  tlie  worst  obstacle  to  our  success  is  the 
scarcity  of  fuel. 

Of  all  English  writers  we  probably  know  as  much  if  not  more 
of  Macaulay  than  of  any  other. 

Ten  soldiers  armed  and  disciplined  will  avail  more  for  protec- 
tion than  a  hundred  unarmed  and  undisciplined. 

He  is  the  bravest  of  the  brave. 

She  is  the  sweetest-tempered  of  any  of  my  friends. 

More  Chinese  enter  by  this  port  than  by  any  port  in  the  country. 

The  position  as  president  of  this  new  university  has  been  ten- 
dered to  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  now  at  the  head  of  a 
great  college. 

Was  there  ever  man  a  coward  that  hath  drunk  so  much  sack  as 
I  to-day  ? — Tempest,  in,  2. 

Some  French  words  express  ideas  which  no  corresponding 
English  terms  express  as  well. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  the  wild  geese  probably  do  not  leave  the 
north  till  they  are  frozen  out,  for  I  have  heard  their  bugles 
sounding  southward  so  late  as  the  middle  of  December. — Lowell. 

Macaulay  was  not exuberantly  copious  as  these  two  illus- 
trious writers,  but  he  had  the  art  of  being various  without 

being voluminous.     [Supply  as  or  so,  as  the  case  requires.] 

3.  My  object  was  not  to  detract  but  to  add  to  your  resources. 
Such  instances  do  not  deprive  the  Americans  of  the  credit  they 

claim  to  be  a  law-biding  community. — Bryce. 

At  last  the  day  arrived  which  he  had  so  long  dreamed  and 
looked  forward  to. 


COMBINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION.         147 

Kesolve,  vacillation,  and  counter-resolve  swayed,  departed, 
and  frequently  returned  again  to  his  mind. 

37.  Coordination  and  Subordination. — The  coordinating 
conjunctions,   and,  or,  nor,  but,   and  the  like,  should  be   - 
used  to  connect  only  parts  of  sentences  that  are  coordinate 
in  value.     In  general,  too,  the  parts  thus  connected  should 
not  be  widely  dissimilar  in  form.     The  subordinating  con-  ) 
junctions,  because,  since,  if,  altJiough,   that,  lest,  as,  and'^ 
the  like,  and  all  relative  pronouns  and  adverbs,  are  used 
only  to  introduce  dependent  clauses. 

1.  Cooi'dinating  connectives  are  sometimes  wrongly  used 
between  words  or  constructions  not  coordinate.  For  ex- 
ample, a  participial  clause  is  subordinate  and  can  be  co- 
ordinated only  with  other  subordinate  clauses,  not  with  a 
principal  clause,  as  in  the  following  : 

Japan  has  sent  another  protest  to  tlie  United  States  against 
Hawaiian  annexation  and  implying  that  she  is  willing  to  go 
further  than  diplomatic  warfare  to  prevent  such  action.  [Omit 
and.^ 

Perhaps  the  writer  of  this  sentence  meant  to  coordinate 
the  participial  clause  with  only  the  words  "against  Hawai- 
ian annexation,"  treating  both  as  modifiers  of  "protest." 
If  so  the  effect  is  still  bad,  for  we  have  a  clause  coordinated 
with  a  phrase.  So  in  the  following  the  clause  introduced-* " 
by  but,  principal  in  form,  is  coordinate  in  meaning  with 
the  mere  phrase  "'away  from  the  sunlight."  The  matter 
can  be  helped  somewhat  by  dropping  the  second  are, 
though  the  portions  coordinated  by  but  will  still  be  very 
dissimilar. 

The  lemons  are  placed  in  boxes  and  packed  in  the  warehouse 
away  from  the  sunlight,  but  are  ventilated  by  a  continual  cur- 
rent of  fresh  air. 

2.  The  much-discussed  ''and  which"  construction  be- 
longs here.     The  law  that  should  govern  it  is  very  simple. 


148  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

'Wliich  introduces  a  relative  clause.  A  relative  clause  can 
be  easily  coordinated  only  with  another  relative  clause. 
Therefore  and  or  hut  should  be  used  before  wliicli  only 
when  another  which  has  preceded.  This  will  be  true  also 
of  other  relatives,  as  ivho  and  where.  Examples  of  correct 
usage : 

Bribery,  which  was  once  upheld  as  a  legitimate  measure,  and 
which  was  openly  practised,  is  no  longer  heard  of. 

The  barbarians,  to  whom  we  all  owe  so  much,  and  who  rein- 
vigorated  and  renewed  our  worn-out  Europe,  had,  as  is  well 
known,  eminent  merits. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  participial  or  other 
phrase  is  used  to  qualify  a  noun  after  the  manner  of  a 
relative  clause,  so  much  so  indeed  that  the  phrase  may 
often  be  regarded  as  an  incomplete  clause,  the  relative  and 
copula  being  easily  understood.  There  is  no  logical  diffi- 
culty in  coordinating  a  relative  clause  with  such  a  clause  as 
this,  the  sole  objection  to  it  lying  in  the  want  of  perfect 
balance  of  form  and  the  slight  effect  of  slovenliness  that  it 
gives  to  the  style.  Examples  of  such  coordination  can  be 
cited  in  large  numbers  from  writers  of  the  highest  authority. 
And  the  French,  too,  with  all  their  fine  feeling  for  style, 
accept  the  construction  in  their  language. 

The  pamphlet  of  a  certain  land  company — a  publication  now 
out  of  print  and  rare,  but  a  copy  of  which  it  has  been  my  good 
fortune  to  secure — mentions  the  battle. — G.  W.  Cable. 

Mr.  Worsley  .  .  ,  has  produced  a  version  of  the  Odyssey  much 
the  most  pleasing  of  those  hitherto  produced,  and  which  is  de- 
lightful to  read. — Matthew  Arnold. 

The  case  is  the  same  when  the  relative  clause  is  co- 
ordinated with  an  appositivc  noun: 

It  is  true  of  Chateaubriand,  the  inventor,  we  might  almost  say, 
of  the  primitive  forest,  and  who  first  was  touched  by  the  solemn 
falling  of  a  tree  from  natural  decay  in  the  Avindless  silence  of  the 
woods.  — Lowell. 


COORDINAriON  AND  SUBORDINATION.         149 

On  entering  the  shop  she  found  an  old  man  there,  a  humble 
resident  of  Pyncheon  Street,  and  whom,  for  a  great  many  years 
past,  she  had  suffered  to  be  a  kind  of  familiar  of  the  house. — 
Hawthorne. 

When,  howeA^er,  there  is  no  substantive  qualifier  with 
which  to  coordinate  the  relative  clause,  and  the  clause 
seems  to  be  linked  directly  to  the  subject,  the  construction 
becomes  inadmissible  : 

But  he  will  be  ill  pleased,  I  judge,  if  you  suffer  him  to  neglect 
the  courtesy  due  to  one  of  our  chief  rulers,  and  who  may  be  said 
to  represent  King  William,  in  the  absence  of  the  governor  him- 
self.— Hawthorne  :  House  of  Seven  Gables,  i. 

3.  The  coordinating  conjunctions  may  stand  at  the  begin- ' 
ning  of  sentences,  connecting  sentences  with  sentences, 
or  sentences  with  paragraphs,  or  paragraphs  with  jDara- 
graphs.  The  subordinating  conjunctions  cannot  introduce 
separate  sentences  ;  though  of  course  they  may  stand  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence  when  the  subordinate  clause 
chances  to  come  before  the  main  clause.  A  few  special 
cases  require  notice.  Besides,  moreover,  accordingly,  there- 
fore, nevertheless,  however,  so,  and  then  are  not  commonly 
used  to  coordinate  clauses  within  a  sentence,  but  are 
reserved  for  linking  the  larger  masses  of  thought  expressed 
by  complete  sentences.  Most  of  them,  however,  may  stand 
between  the  clauses  of  a  sentence  when  used  in  combination 
with  one  of  the  closer  connectives — and  accordingly ,  and  so, 
lut  nevertheless.  The  want  of  compactness  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  following  sentences  will  be  readily  felt : 

_  I  was  so  tired  I  could  hardly  drag  one  foot  after  the  other, 
besides  I  was  faint  from  my  long  fast,  so  I  resolved  to  go  no  further 
that  night. 

The  first  descent  resulted  in  the  smashing  of  the  rear  brake,  so 
we  had  but  one  heavy  lever  for  the  remainder  of  the  journey. 

"We  expected  a  storm,  so  arranged  our  traps  in  anticipation. 

Every  evening  study-hour  was  held  until  half-past  eight,  then 


150  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

the  boys  were   given   until   nine   to   enjoy   themselves.     [Write 
after  whicJi.} 

For  other  examples  see  Appendix  B  vii  3  (i'o),  xiii  4 
{then).  The  word  so  is  by  far  the  most  frequent  olfender 
in  these  cases.  Indeed,  the  use  of  it  as  above  illustrated 
points  to  a  loose  habit  of  mind  in  the  writer,  who  will 
almost  invariably  be  found  to  lack  the  •'sentence-sense" 
and  to  have  only  the  vaguest  ideas  of  the  significance  of 
jDunctuation.  See  the  example  under  58,  Exercise,  begin- 
ning "The  next  morning."  There  are  several  ways  of 
securing  greater  compactness.  If  the  connection  is  close 
and  other  considerations  do  not  forbid  and  may  be 
inserted  before  so,  as  noted  above.  That  this  method, 
however,  will  not  always  result  in  a  good  sentence  may  be 
seen  by  reference  to  Appendix  B  vi  3.  Usually  a  better 
method  consists  in  making  the  main  clause  subordinate  by 
introducing  it  with  since,  as,  or  a  similar  word,  and  dis- 
pensing with  the  so:  •'Inasmuch  as  I  was  so  tired  from 
walking  and  so  faint  from  hunger  I  resolved  to  go  tio  fur- 
ther that  night."  If  the  connection  is  not  close  the  best 
method  is  to  punctuate  witli  so  beginning  a  new  sentence. 
Even  then  it  will  often  be  found  well  to  substitute  some 
other  connective,  such  as  acrordinghj  or  coisequodly,  so 
disagreeably  loose  is  this  same  little  particle  so. 

When  so  is  used  in  the  sense  of  so  Unit  we  have  a  case 
of  subordination,  and  the  only  question  that  can  arise  will 
bo  in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  omitting  tJial : 

The  space-writer  is  inclined  to  be  lax  and  work  only  when  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  body  and  soul  to^'ethor,  so  it  has  become 
almost  pi'overbial  that  space-writers  are  poor. 

—  4.  The  various  means  of  subordination  deserve  study 
and  practice  because  of  their  inestimable  value  for  setting 
forth  the  finer  shades  of  meaning,  tlie  different  kinds  and 
degrees  of  relationship  subsisting  between  ideas — iu  short, 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION.         151 

the  whole  varied  play  of  the  mind  about  an  object  of 
thought.  Subordination  certainly  belongs  to  the  later 
stages  in  the  development  of  a  language,  and  a  writer's 
ability  to  subordinate  with  accuracy  and  ease  is  one  of  the 
tests  of  his  command  over  his  speech.  The  child  coordi- 
nates nearly  all  of  his  clauses.  And  and  hut  come  early 
into  his  vocabulary;  because,  if,  till,  come  somewhat  late; 
what  is  long  made  to  serve  indiscriminately  for  ivho,  which, 
what,  and  that ;  while  these  relatives,  along  with  the  con- 
nectives of  subtler  significance,  although,  notwithstanding, 
lest,  considering,  come  very  late,  some  of  them  perhaps  not 
at  all.  Compare  the  two  following  sentences,  the  first 
from  a  six-year-old's  letter,  the  second  from  Coleridge's 
essay  on  Dreams : 

"We  went  to  the  city  yesterday  and  rode  on  the  street-cars  and 
we  went  to  the  park  and  I  took  a  I'ide  in  a  goat-cart  and  Robbie 
rode  a  donkey  but  Uncle  Will  had  to  hold  him  on. 

For  still  as  the  darkness  increased  the  image  of  the  tire  lessened 
and  grew  nearer  and  more  distinct;  till  the  twilight  had  deepened 
into  perfect  night,  when,  all  outward  objects  being  excluded,  the 
window  became  a  perfect  looking-glass  :  save  only  that  my  books 
on  the  side  shelves  of  the  room  were  lettered,  as  it  were,  on  their 
backs  with  stars,  more  or  fewer  as  the  sky  was  less  or  more 
clouded,  the  rays  of  the  stars  being  at  that  time  the  only  ones 
transmitted. 

It  is  the  language  of  reason,  of  science,  law,  philosophy, 
that  makes  the  greatest  use  of  subordination.  Language 
that  aims  more  at  ease  of  comprehension  and  directness  of 
effect  than  at  precision  vnll  largely  dispense  with  it.  This 
is  a  part  of  the  secret  of  Macaulay's  popularity.  All  pre- 
sentive  literature  too,  like  narration  and  description,  ap- 
pealing directly  to  the  imagination  or  to  the  emotions  avoids 
cumbering  itself  with  minute  distinctions.  Thus  extremes 
meet,  and  in  some  of  the  most  exalted  flights  of  prose  and 


152  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

poetry  there  is  a  return  to  the  primitive  simplicity  of  the 
coordinate  style. 

In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth. 

And  the  earth  was  without  form,  and  void  ;  and  darkness  was 
upon  the  face  of  the  deep.  And  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  waters. 

And  God  said,  Let  there  be  hght :  and  there  was  hglit. 

And  God  saw  the  hght,  that  it  was  good  :  and  God  divided  the 
Ught  from  the  darkness. 

And  God  cahed  the  light  Day,  and  the  darkness  He  caUed 
Night.  And  the  evening  and  the  morning  were  the  first  day. — 
Genesis  i.  1-5. 

I  thought  that  it  was  a  Sunday  morning  in  May,  that  it  was 
Easter  Sunday,  and  as  yet  was  very  early  in  the  morning.  I  was 
standing,  as  it  seemed  to  me,  at  the  door  of  my  own  cottage. 
Right  before  me  lay  the  very  scene  which  could  really  be  com- 
manded from  that  situation,  but  exalted,  as  was  usual,  and  sol- 
emnized by  the  power  of  dreams.  There  were  tlie  same  moun- 
tains, and  the  same  lovely  valley  at  their  feet ;  but  the  mountains 
were  raised  to  more  than  Alpine  height,  and  there  was  interspace 
far  larger  between  them  of  meadows  and  forest  lawns ;  the  hedges 
were  rich  with  white  roses  ;  and  no  living  creature  was  to  be  seen, 
excepting  that  in  the  green  churchyard  there  were  cattle  tran- 
quilly reposing  upon  the  verdant  graves,  and  particularly  round 
about  the  grave  of  a  child  whom  I  had  tenderly  loved,  just  as  I 
had  really  beheld  them,  a  little  before  sunrise  in  the  same  sum- 
mer, when  that  child  died.  I  gazed  upon  the  well-known  scene, 
and  I  said  aloud  (as  I  thought)  to  myself,  "  It  yet  wants  much  of 
sunrise  ;  and  it  is  Easter  Sunday  ;  and  that  is  the  day  on  which 
they  celebrate  the  first  fruits  of  resurrection.  I  will  walk 
abroad  ;  old  griefs  shall  be  forgotten  to-day  ;  for  the  air  is  cool 
and  still,  and  the  hills  are  high,  and  stretch  away  to  heaven  ;  and 
the  forest  glades  are  as  quiet  as  the  churchyard  ;  and,  with  the 
dew,  I  can  wash  tlie  fever  from  my  forehead,  and  then  I  shall  be 
unhappy  no  longer."  And  I  turned,  as  if  to  open  my  garden 
gate  ;  and  immediately  I  saw  upon  the  left  a  scene  far  different  ; 
but  which  yet  the  power  of  dreams  had  reconciled  into  harmony 
with  the  other.    The  scene  was  an  Oriental  one  ;  and  there  also  it 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION.         153 

was  Easter  Sunday,  and  very  early  in  the  morning.  And  at  a 
vast  distance  were  visible,  as  a  stain  upon  the  horizon,  the  domes 
and  cupolas  of  a  great  city — an  image  or  faint  abstraction,  caught 
perhaps  in  childhood  from  some  picture  of  Jerusalem.  And  not 
a  bow-shot  from  me,  upon  a  stone,  and  shaded  by  Judean  palms, 
there  sat  a  woman  ;  and  I  looked  ;  and  it  was — Ann  !  She  fixed 
her  eyes  upon  me  earnestly  ;  and  I  said  to  her  at  length  :  "So  then 
I  have  found  you  at  last. " — De  Quincey  :  Co?ifessions. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct  faults  of  coordination  or  subordination : 

1.  The  most  effective  protection  is  to  drop  a  sack  over  the  young 
tree  when  the  sun  is  warm^  a«i- removing  it  in  the  evening. 

We  kept  to  the  valleys,  which  were  filled  with  huge  cedar-trees, 
but  with  hardly  any  underbrush. 

E.  G.  King,  who  has  been  seriously  ill,  is  reported  to  be  much 
improved  and  his  recovery  assured. 

The  average  schoolroom  floor  is  very  faulty  from  the  fact  that 
proper  material  is  not  used,  neither  is  the  floor  well  made. 

Rich  Cubans  were  arrested,  for  ne-other-  reason-  than  -that  the 
Spanish  officials  wanted  their  money,  their  property  taken  from 
them,  and  without  a  trial  of  any  kind  were  either  shot  or  im- 
prisoned in  the  dismal  dungeons  of  Morro  Castle  and  left  to  starve 
to  death. 

The  little  river  that  we  had  been  following  ran  on  to  the  east 
until  it  was  headed  off  by  the  eastern  range,  where  it  parted,  one 
branch  slipping  down  a  path  to  the  northeast,  the  other  turning 
southeast,  and  about  a  mile  below  the  town  disappeared  around 
a  hill. 

We  drove  to  Punch  Bowl  and  Diamond  Head — extinct  craters 
which  were  rough  and  rugged  in  places  and  showing  traces  of 
volcanic  action,  but  in  more  sheltered  spots  soil  had  gradually  ac- 
cumulated during  the  centuries  which  had  passed  since  the  vol- 
canoes had  been  active,  and  grass  and  shrubs  had  grown,  partly 
concealing  evidences  of  fearful  eruptions.  We  climbed  to  the 
Pali,  a  precipitous  cliff,  to  which  many  years  before  the  chief  of 
the  island  and  his  followers  had  retreated  from  Xamehameha,  the 


1 54  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLA  USES. 

conquering  chief  from  a  neighboring  island,  and  then,  rather 
than  surrender  to  him,  they  had  cast  themselves  over  the  preci- 
pice. 

The  sugar-cane  was  caught  in  a  large  wheel  and  cut  into  small 
pieces  which  were  passed  under  heavy  machinery  and  the  juice 
pressed  out. 

We  rose  as  usual  at  daybreak,  ate  breakfast,  and  started  out 
with  our  canteens,  poles,  axes,  and  stakes,  and  ran  down  to  the 
lake,  a  distance  of  about  a  mile. 

2.  Or  was  she  a  spirit  with  a  heavenly  essence,  but  which  might 
have  been  tamed  down  to  human  bliss  ? — Hawthorne. 

It  is  at  best  but  the  school  exercise  of  a  young  poet  learning  to 
write,  and  who  reproduces  in  his  copy-book,  more  or  less  traves- 
tied, the  copy  that  has  been  set  for  him  at  the  page's  head  by  the 
authors  he  most  admires. — Lowell  :  Sivinburne's  Tragedies. 

Mr.  Price  of  the  party,  and  who  has  formerly  spent  consider- 
able time  in  Arizona  collecting  zoological  specimens,  leaves  soon 
for  Nevada  to  make  further  investigations. 

They  belong  to  the  margins  of  lands,  the  space  between  the 
farms  and  the  river,  beyond  the  pastures,  and  where  the  marsh 
in  flower  becomes  perilous  footing  for  the  cattle. — Mrs.  Meynell  : 
Colo7-  of  Life. 

3.  Nothing  can  be  seen  farther  north,  so  turn  once  more  to  the 
bay  on  the  west. 

Stafford  turned  his  head  and  listened,  Mary  too  paused  a  mo- 
ment in  her  occupation. 

We  could  not  find  any  suitable  inns  in  Lerwick,  so  we  rented 
nice  rooms  in  the  quiet  home  of  a  Slietland  lady. 

Leaving  the  park,  we  climbed  over  fallen  trees  and  piles  of  rock, 
then,  passing  around  a  huge  boulder,  we  came  upon  a  scene  which 
I  shall  not  soon  forget. 

Mother  ran  to  the  door  to  welcome  her,  then  she  turned  to  me 
and  said  :  "  Come,  Anna,  this  is  to  be  your  new  sister." 

When  gathering  up  our  things  in  the  morning  the  axe  could 
not  be  found,  however,  we  considered  ourselves  fortunate  that 
nothing  else  was  missing. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  from  the  time  of  George  Wash- 
ington have  elected  a  President  every  four  years.  We  differ  in 
this  respect  from  all  European  nations,  even  France  which  is  in 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION.         loo 

a  manner  modelled  after  our  government  chooses  a  President  only 
every  six  years. 

4.  Take  the  following  translation  from  the  Saxon  Chron- 
icle and  rewrite  it,  putting  all  the  clauses  that. are  logically 
subordinate  into  subordinate  form,  as  exemplitied  in  brack- 
ets below : 

Now  Cynewulf  and  Westseaxna  wise  men  deprived  Sigebryht  of 
his  kingdom  for  unrighteous  deeds,  except  Hampshire ;  and  he 
held  it  until  he  slew  the  magistrate  who  dwelt  longest  with  him. 
And  then  Cynewulf  drove  him  out  into  Andred-forest ;  and  he 
dwelt  there,  until  that  a  herdsman  stabbed  him  to  death  at  Pry- 
fetes-fiood  (and  he  avenged  the  magistrate  Cumbran).  And  this 
Cynewulf  often  in  many  fights  fought  with  Bretwalum  ;  and  about 
xxxi  winters  that  he  held  the  kingdom,  he  wanted  to  expel  a 
noble,  wlio  was  called  Cyneheard  (and  this  Cyneheard  was  that 
Sigebryht's  brother).  And  then  he  heard  that  the  king  was  with 
a  small  force  in  the  company  of  a  woman  at  Merantun,  and  sur- 
rounded him  there,  and  besieged  the  chamber,  before  the  men 
discovered  him  who  were  with  the  king.  And  then  the  king  per- 
ceived that,  and  he  went  to  the  door,  and  then  nobly  defended 
himself,  until  he  beheld  the  noble,  and  then  rushed  out  upon  him, 
and  wounded  him  severely  ;  and  they  all  were  fighting  against 
the  king,  until  that  they  had  slain  him.  And  then  at  the 
woman's  outcry  the  officers  of  the  king  perceived  the  disturbance, 
and  they  ran  thither  whoever  was  then  ready  and  most  quickly. 
And  the  noble  offered  each  of  them  money  and  life,  and  none  of 
them  would  take  it  ;  and  they  were  always  fighting,  until  they  all 
lay  dead  except  one  British  hostage,  and  he  was  sorely  wounded. 

[Now  Cynewulf  and  liis  West-Saxon  councillors  deprived  Sige- 
bryht, for  his  unrighteous  deeds,  of  all  of  his  kingdom  except 
Hampshire,  which  he  w'as  still  allowed  to  hold  for  a  time.  But 
upon  his  slaying  the  magistrate  wiio  had  dwelt  longest  witli  him, 
Cumbran  by  name,  Cynewulf  drove  him  out  into  Andred-forest, 
where  he  dwelt,  etc.] 


156  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 


III.     CLEARNESS. 

Clearness  is  the  first  requisite  of  all  composition.  Every- 
thing else  should  be  sacrificed  to  it.  No  novelty  of  word 
or  elegance  of  phrase  should  beguile  a  writer  into  penning 
a  sentence  that  he  knows  may  be  misconstrued.  He  is  free 
to  do  violence  to  almost  any  principle  of  rhetoric  if  he  can 
show  that  clearness  requires  him  to  take  such  a  course. 
Landor  declared  an  obscurity  to  be  worse  than  a  defect  in 
grammar. 

Yet  few  things  are  more  difficult  to  avoid  than  ambi- 
guity and  obscurity.  No  man  is  perfect  master  of  a  lan- 
guage. Let  a  writer  do  his  best  in  composition  and  in 
revision,  his  work  will  not  be  above  criticism.  Readers  will 
see  in  his  words  possible  meanings  that  he,  conscious  be- 
forehand of  the  intended  meaning,  would  never  discover. 
It  follows  that  the  best  of  writers  can  profit  by  criticism — 
indeed,  the  best  writers  are  most  likely  to  welcome  it. 

The  great  requisite  to  clear  Avriting  is  undoubtedly  clear 
thinking.  But  clear  thinking  is  not  all-sufficient — if  it 
were  there  would  be  little  use  for  books  on  rhetoric.  The 
youth  who  wrote,  "  lie  cannot  agree  with  Sir  John  Mal- 
colm but  rather  with  Mr.  Mill  that  Lord  Clive  was  forced 
to  do  what  he  did  by  circumstances,"  certainly  knew  ex- 
actly what  he  desired  to  say.  But  he  had  not  yet  a  Ma- 
caulayan  mastery  of  speech,  he  was  not  yet  alive  to  the 
varied  import  of  words  and  the  arrangement  of  words.  It 
is  to  these  formal  helps  toward  clearness  of  expression 
that  we  desire  now  to  give  our  attention. 

38.  Collocation. — Things  that  belong  together  in  thought 
must  be  kept  together  in  expression.  The  value  of  this  law 
will  be  realized  when  we  pause  to  consider  how  many  di- 


COLLOCATION.  157 

Verse  elements  with  how  many  diverse  relations  often  go  to 
the  making  up  of  a  single  sentence.  Take  a  simple  case : 
"  There  is  no  form  of  government  not  basing  its  reason  for 
existence  on  the  claim  of  standing  for  the  best  common  in- 
terests of  the  people  governed."  There  are  in  this  sentence 
six  prepositional  phrases  used  as  modifiers  and  one  partici- 
pial modifier.  Yet  the  sentence  is  clear,  because  the 
phrases  stand  in  a  normal  order,  each,  with  one  exception, 
being  a  modifier  of  the  word  that  directly  precedes  it. 
And,  with  one  exception  again,  the  influence  of  each  prep- 
osition extends  over  the  entire  portion  of  the  sentence 
that  follows  it.  This  intricate  and  yet  simple  construction 
may  perhaps  be  shown  to  the  eye  in  the  following  manner: 

There  is  no  form  of  (government  not  basing  ( its  reason  for  exist- 
ence) on  (the  claim  of  (standing  for  (the  best  common  interests 
of  ( the  people  governed ))))). 

There  is  but  one  place  here  where  the  reader  might  gc» 
astray:  it  is  just  possible  to  read  on  with  existence  instead 
of  with  iasing.  But  this  slight  danger  is  sufficient  to  make 
it  plain  that  where  such  places  are  numerous,  where  the 
gaps  are  wider  and  the  relations  more  intricate,  tho  danger 
of  obscurity  increases  rapidly. 

1.  Loose  Arrangement. — It  is  easy  to  give  amusing 
examples  of  the  effect  of  stringing  together  the  parts  of  a 
sentence  or  phrase  in  whatever  order  they  may  chance  to 
come.  Some  of  these  unhappy  collocations  are  among  the 
curiosities  of  literature. 

Black  ladies'  parasols. 

Second-grade  teachers'  certificates. 

A  preparation  for  removing  freckles  in  liquid  form. 

Does  a  gentleman  belong  to  your  club  with  one  eye  named 
Walker  ? 

The  newly  wedded  pair  departed  with  the  best  wishes  of  their 
friends  for  a  short  journey. 


158  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

It  is  when  such  constructions  arise  in  business  letters,  in 
telegrams,  in  wills  and  contracts,  that  real  difficulty  ensues. 

Do  not  send  goods  until  further  notice  to  Ohio  this  week. 

Biographical  dictionaries  are  full  of  such  vexatious  collo- 
cations as  the  following : 

Henry  VII.,  son  of  Edmund  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond. 
Carlo  Filangieri,  an  Italian  general,  son  of  Gaetano  Filangieri, 
premier  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

Where  no  obscurity  results  much  freedom  may  be  exer- 
cised in  the  collocation  of  elements.  For  example,  a  short 
modifier  may,  merely  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  stand  nearer 
the  part  modified  than  a  long  modifier,  even  though  the 
latter  is  more  closely  related.  Or  the  dislocation  may  take 
place  under  stress  of  emotion,  or  it  may  be  allowed  in 
order  to  secure  special  emphasis  or  to  avoid  some  ambigu- 
ity that  would  arise  from  the  natural  order. 

The  passage  contains  the  utmost  number  that  will  come 
together  into  the  space,  of  absolutely  just,  wise,  and  kind 
thoughts. 

Ah,  vision  too  fearful  of  shuddering  humanity  on  the  brink  of 
almighty  abysses  !  .  .  .  Epilepsy  so  brief  of  horror,  wherefore  is 
it  that  thou  canst  not  die  ? 

Now  the  strawberry  is  the  only  kind  I  like  of  small  fruits  that 
grow  wild  in  this  vicinity. 

I  recognized  in  the  disturbance  on  the  opposite  bank  only 
another  fierce  struggle  among  the  hungry  animals  for  existence. 

2.  A  relative  clause  should  in  general  follow  the  sub- 
stantive that  it  qualifies.  If  another  substantive  is  allowed 
to  intervene  it  may  be  impossible  to  determine  immediately 
which  is  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun.  A  sentence  writ- 
ten not  far  above  was  discovered  on  rereading  to  be  faulty 
in  this  respect.  The  sentence,  which  has  been  allowed  to 
stand  as  an  example,  runs  as  follows: 

And,  with  one  exception  again,  the  influence  of  each  preposi- 


COLLOCATION.  159 

tion  extends  over  the  entire  portion  of  the  sentence  that  fol- 
lows it. 

"Portion"'  is  the  antecedent  of  ''that."  Inasmuch  as 
there  was  but  one  sentence  under  consideration  there  was 
little  danger,  perhaps,  of  reading  "sentence"  as  the  ante- 
cedent.    Nevertheless  the  collocation  is  not  good. 

Here,  again,  there  may  often  be  reasons  for  separating  the 
clause  from  the  antecedent.  And  such  separation  may  be 
allowed  if  there  is  but  one  possible  antecedent,  or  if  tlie 
context  or  sentence-emphasis  makes  it  perfectly  clear  which 
word  is  the  antecedent. 

No  man  can  practise  virtue  who  does  not  know  what  virtue  is. 

Thrums  is  the  name  I  give  here  to  the  handful  of  houses  jum- 
bled together  in  a  cup,  which  is  the  town  nearest  the  school- 
house. — J.  M.  Barrie. 

3.  Only  is  a  word  the  misplacement  of  which  is  a  com- 
mon source  of  ambiguity.  In  the  same  category  belong 
alone,  also,  certainly,  even,  of  course,  and  other  restrictive 
and  emphasizing  words.  "The  station  of  a  syllable,"  says 
De  Quincey,  "may  cloud  the  judgment  of  a  council." 

He  only  desires  to  pay  for  what  he  has  ordered. 
The  buckeye  grows  also  on  the  Inll. 

A  certain  position  of  the  word  only  in  the  English  sen- 
tence has  come  to  be  so  familiar  and  so  easy  that  it  may  be 
defended  along  with  many  another  illogical  idiom  of  the 
language.  This  position  is  just  before  the  verb.  "I  only 
told  my  sister,"  "I  shall  only  try  once,"  are  formulas  that 
we  hear  and  see  every  day.  Professor  Genung  ("Elements 
of  Ehetoric,"  p.  119)  gives  the  example,  "For  fifty  miles 
the  river  could  only  be  distinguished  from  the  ocean  by  its 
calmness  and  discolored  water,*'  and  then  remarks:  "It  is 
undoubtedly  a  fact,  due  to  the  so  frequent  misplacing  of 
only,  that  people  make  the  adjustment  of  sense  uncon- 


160  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

sciously;  but  tliis  should  not  be  taken  as  an  excuse  for  the 
incorrect  usage."  Yet  if  the  adjustment  is  made  uncour 
sciously  we  can  hardly  ask  for  more.  The  sentences  are 
not  obscure;  and  the  rule,  usually  valid  in  rhetoric,  that 
everything  should  be  not  only  finally  clear  but  immediately 
clear  can  hardly  be  insisted  upon  in  this  case,  seeing  that 
we  have  all  learned  the  wisdom  and  formed  the  habit  of 
holding  in  suspense  the  construction  of  the  word  onli/. 
Yet  we  must  not  depend  upon  this,  to  the  forgetting  of 
the  fact  that  ambiguity  may  lurk  here — the  word  will 
always  bear  watching. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  any  causes  of  ambiguity  or  obscurity  in  the 
following  sentences,  and  show  how  the  defects  can  be 
remedied  : 

1.  A  method  was  invented  of  settling  the  question  which  both 
sides  acquiesced  in. 

In  1886  Mr.  Rowan  finished  an  education  begun  in  the  old 
world  at  Watkin's  Academy. 

Sir  John  Spencer  had  several  daughters,  three  of  whom  made 
great  marriages.  Elisabeth  was  the  wife  of  Sir  George  Carey, 
afterwai'ds  the  second  Lord  Hunsdon,  the  son  of  Elisabeth's  cousin 
and  Counsellor.  Anne,  first  Lady  Compton,  afterwards  married 
Thomas  Sackville,  the  son  of  the  poet,  Lord  Buckhurst,  and  then 
Earl  of  Dorset.  Alice,  the  youngest,  whose  first  husband.  Lord 
Strange,  became  Earl  of  Derby,  after  his  death  married  Thomas 
Egerton,  Lord  Keeper,  Baron  Ellesmere,  and  then  Viscount 
Brackley. — R.  W.  Church. 

In  April,  1585,  the  Antwerpers  blew  up  the  bridge  across 
the  Scheldt  which  Parma  had  constructed  to  prevent  supplies 
from  reaching  the  city.  [This  sentence  means  just  what  it  says, 
but  the  arrangement  can  be  improved  so  as  to  put  the  matter 
beyond  any  doubt.] 

When  it  is  intended  to  convey  a  tract  of  land  from  one  person 
to  another  whereby  the  possession  and  control  of  the  land  passes 


COLLOCATION.  161 

from  the  seller  to  the  buyer  it  is  necessary  that  the  transfer 
be  evidenced  in  some  way,  that  tlie  transaction  be  given  such 
publicity  that  the  new  owner  being  known  no  further  sales  can  be 
made  to  innocent  third  parties  in  order  that  the  purchaser  may 
have  continuous  and  peaceable  possession.  It  is  not  so  many 
years  since,  when  in  Scotland,  whenever  a  farm  was  bought  and 
sold,  a  party  of  men  assembled  on  it  and  went  through  the 
old  form  of  the  delivery  of  so  much  earth  and  stone,  picked  up  oft" 
the  land,  from  the  seller  to  the  buyer,  or  his  attorney. 

But  by  her  side  was  kneeling  her  better  angel,  that  fought  with 
heaven  by  tears  for  her  deliverance. — De  Quincey. 

How  well  I  recall  the  indomitable  good  humor  under  fire  of  him 
who  fell  in  the  front  at  Ball's  Bluff,  the  silent  pertinacity  of 
the  gentle  scholar  who  got  his  last  hurt  at  Fair  Oaks,  the  ardor  in 
the  charge  of  the  gallant  gentleman  who,  with  the  death-wound 
in  his  side,  headed  his  brigade  at  Cedar  Creek  !— Lowell. 
A  beauty  sleeps  beneath  yon  quiet  grass 
"Who  dreamed  her  face  the  world  might  not  surpass. 

— Le  Gallienne. 

2,  He  was  diligently  scanning  a  leaf  of  a  Bible  which  lay,  torn 
almost  to  tatters,  on  the  table  before  him. 

One  of  the  marvels  of  this  country,  of  which,  until  recently, 
comparatively  little  has  been  known,  is  Crater  Lake. 

There  are  many  soft  rocks  on  the  hills  which  are  deeply  em- 
bedded in  the  earth. 

For  it  is  certain  that  to  the  vulgar  eye  few  things  are  wonderful 
that  are  not  distant. 

In  the  spring  of  1893  occurred  a  snowslide  near  the  Black  Bear 
Mine  in  northern  Idaho  which  is  always  referred  to  by  the  people 
there  as  "  the  big  slide." 

Problems  tumble  easily  apart  in  the  field  that  refuse  to  give  up 
their  secret  in  the  study  or  even  in  the  closet. — Dr.  Paukhurst. 

Boys  used  to  climb  on  to  his  stone  roof  with  clods  of  damp  earth 
in  their  hands,  which  they  dropped  down  the  chimney. — J.  M. 
Barrie. 

The  rabbit  has  the  advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  hiding-places 
(  which  it  is  not  slow  to  avail  itself  of. 
}  which  it  tries  to  reach  when  pursued. 
(  which  it  has  obtained  from  many  a  desperate  chase. 


162  THE  SENTENCE  AND   ITS   CLAUSES. 

3.  The  faithful  study  of  rhetoric  alone  will  enable  you  to  renaoTe 
your  deficiencies. 

Men  turned  loose  upon  the  world  in  consequence  flock  to 
the  cities. 

It  was  not  Jack's  heart  alone  that  leaped  with  joy  when 
the  promotion  came. 

Scrupp  himself  said  that  his  story  was  not  worth  telling. 

Scrupp  said  himself  that  his  story  was  not  worth  telling. 

I,  of  course,  knew  that  the  Shetland  Islands  lay  somewhere  to 
the  north  of  Scotland,  but [Supply  the  adversative  state- 
ment.] 

I  knew,  of  course,  that  the  Shetland  Islands  lay  somewhere 
to  the  north  of  Scotland,  but 

Again  "Wednesday  was  calm.  Wednesday  again  was  calm. 
"Wednesday  was  again  calm.  "Wednesday  was  calm  again. 
[Froude  uses  the  third  form  of  this  sentence  to  mean  that, 
after  a  calm  Monday  and  Tuesday,  the  weather  continued  calm 
on  "Wednesday.] 

39.  Conjunction. — Our  language,  with  all  its  wealth  of 
particles  for  accurate  and  flexible  construction  (see  37,  4), 
is  yet  by  no  means  equipped  for  indicating  all  varieties  of 
relationship.  We  must  use  the  same  word  and,  for  exam- 
ple, to  connect  coordinate  clauses  of  a  sentence,  coordinate 
phrases  of  a  clause,  and  coordinate  words  of  a  phrase.  It  is 
clear,  therefore,  that  it  will  not  always  be  an  easy  matter 
to  effect  the  conjunction  in  such  a  way  that  the  reader  will 
see  at  once  which  parts  are  meant  to  be  conjoined. 

The  following  sentence  will  illustrate: 

In  paganism  light  is  mixed  with  darkness  and  with  superstition 
and  error  are  blended  religion  and  truth. 

We  may  call  in  the  aid  of  punctuation  and,  by  placing  a 
comma  after  "darkness,^' see  light,  but  it  is  evident  that 
the  ancTs  are  helpless  to  remove  the  obscurity. 

A  little  scrutiny  will  usually  reveal  what  conjunction  is 
intended,  but  danger  of  even  a  momentary  misconception 


RESTRICTIO  N.  163 

should  be  avoided.  In  the  following  sentence  as  first  written 
the  portion  after  and  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb  to  come.  The  preposition  in  should  be  re- 
peated. In  the  second  form  of  the  sentence  such  repetition 
is  unnecessary. 

This  game  is  still  played  in  Canada  and  some  parts  of  the  Uuited 
States. 

In  Canada  and  some  parts  of  the  Uuited  States  this  game  is 
still  played. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  faulty  conjunction  in  the  following  : 

A  little  boy  climbed  a  long  bamboo  pole  which  a  man  held  on 
his  shoulder  and  hung  on  to  the  top  by  one  foot  and  one  hand. 

Each  orange  is  placed  on  an  inclined  plane  the  bottom  of  which 
is  open  and  becomes  gradually  larger  and  drops  through  accord- 
ing to  its  size,  the  largest  remaining  to  the  end. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  a  knowledge  of  our  civil  and  political 
rights  and  the  remedies  for  all  infringements  of  them  is  a  great 
help  to  one  who  must  deal  with  the  general  public. 

A  jungle,  abandoned  to  water-fowl  and  alligators,  covered  the 
site  of  the  present  Citadel,  and  the  Course,  which  is  now  daily 
crowded  at  sunset  with  the  gayest  equipages  of  Calcutta. — Ma- 
CAULAY  :  Lord  Clice. 

40.  Restriction. — Words  frequeiitly  accompany  a  noun 
for  the  purpose  of  restricting  its  meaning  or  application, 
thus:  this  city,  that  city,  the  City  of  the  Violet  Croivn, 
the  cities  that  were  destroyed  by  earthqiutke.  When  a  rela- 
tive clause  performs  this  office  it  is  called  a  restrictive 
clause.  Such  a  clause  should  in  general  be  introduced  by 
the  relative  that  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  clauses  that 
are  merely  explanatory  or  parenthetical,  clauses  giving  ad- 
ditional details  about  an  antecedent  that  is  already  clearly 
defined.  Explanatory  clauses  are  introduced  by  loho  or 
%vh%ch. 


164  THE  SENTENCE  AND  IW  CLAUSES. 

This  rule  would  seem  to  be  simple  enough,  and  yet  many 
writers  find  it  difficult  of  application.  Let  us  take  several 
clear  examples  first: 

Restrictive  :  The  house  that  stands  on  the  summit  of  yonder  hill 
is  the  oldest  in  Contra  Costa  County. 

Explanatory :  Our  house,  which  is  the  oldest  in  Contra  Costa 
County,  stands  on  the  summit  of  yonder  hill. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  relative  clause  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  understanding  of  the  subject,  is  indeed  an  in- 
separable portion  of  the  subject.  In  the  second  sentence 
the  relative  clause  may  be  dropped  entirely  (since  the  sub- 
ject is  already  defined  by  the  word  our),  or  it  may  be  thrown 
into  tlie  coordinate  form :  "  Our  house  (and  it  is  the  oldest, 
etc.)  stands  on  the  summit  of  yonder  hill.'"  For  this  lat- 
ter reason  the  relatives  loho  SLudtvhich  are  sometimes  called 
coordinative.     But  more  difficult  cases  will  arise : 

In  this  climate  the  plants  receive  the  necessary  moisture  from 
the  fogs  and  dews,  and  escape  the  beating  rains  which  [that  ?] 
would  knock  the  ripening  seed  from  the  pods. 

The  article  the  seems  to  call  for  a  restrictive  clause,  and  yet 
the  sense  is  hardly  restrictive.  In  fact  the  real  restrictive 
clause  is  only  implied,  not  expressed;  thus :  "  They  escape 
the  beating  rains  [that  cliaracterize  other  climates]  which 
[were  they  experienced  here]  would  knock  the  ripening 
seed  from  the  pods."  In  other  cases  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  determine  whether  tlie  restrictive  or  the  explanatory 
force  is  the  stronger: 

Oh,  beware,  my  lord,  of  jealousy:  it  is  the  green-eyed  monster 
which  doth  mock  [var.  make]  the  meat  it  feeds  on. — Othello,  ni,  3. 
The  matter  of  cliief  im})ortance  is  that  we  observe  the  dis- 
tinction wherever  necessary  to  avoid  ambiguity.     The  two 
following  sentences  mean  very  dilTcrent  things: 

The  engineers  that  lefused  to  submit  were  discharged. 

The  engineers,  who  refused  to  submit,  were  discharged. 


RESTRICTION.  165 

There  are  some  exceptions  to  the  rule  as  given  above. 
In  restrictive  clauses  who  or  which  is  preferred  to  tliat  in 
the  following  cases : 

(1)  After  antecedents  referring  to  either  persons  or 
things  {many,  some,  all,  and  the  like).  When  persons  are 
referred  to,  ivho  is  used,  since  that  does  not  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish. 

(2)  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion (unless  the  preposition  comes  at  the  end  of  the  clause). 

(3)  Usually  when  there  is  some  break  in  the  continuity 
of  the  sentence  immediately  after  the  pronoun. 

(4)  Often  when  another  that  stands  near,  making  the 
repetition  of  sound  unpleasant. 

It  may  be  noted  that  in  all  of  these  cases  the  absence  of  a 
comma  between  the  antecedent  and  the  pronoun  will  still 
serve  to  indicate  the  restrictive  force  of  the  clause.  Exam- 
ples : 

(1)  The  few  who  were  rescued  were  brought  back  on  the  West- 
moreland. 

(2)  Let  me  explain  to  you  the  situation  in  which  I  am  placed. 
[But,  "  the  situation  that  I  am  placed  in."] 

(3)  We  do  many  things  which,  if  we  obeyed  the  dictates  of  our 
conscience,  we  should  not  do. 

(4)  That  book  contains  other  passages  which  run  counter  to 
that  doctrine. 

The  writers  who  (!)  consistently  observe  the  distinction 
between  restrictive  and  explanatory  relative  pronouns  are 
very  few  in  number.  Perhaps  the  numerous  exceptions  to 
the  rule  have  served  to  break  it  down.  Perhaps  too  there 
has  been  too  much  pedantic  insistence  upon  it.  For,  after 
all,  the  cases  of  real  ambiguity  are  not  many.  And,  we 
suspect,  the  cases  in  which  there  is  any  delicate  shade  of 
meaning  worth  preserving  are  likewise  not  many.  Or  it 
may  happen  that  as  much  is  lost  as  is  gained.     Why,  for 


166  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

instance,  should  we  adhere  to  the  rule  in  a  case  like  the 
following  ? — •'  Passing  round  a  luigo  boulder,  we  came  upon 
a  scene  which  I  shall  not  soon  forget."  We  cannot  stop  at 
the  word  scene — the  word  has  no  definition  beyond  what  is 
given  in  the  relative  clause.  Is  the  clause  not  then  re- 
strictive ?  And  yet  such  characterization  of  the  scene  as  is 
given  by  this  clause  is  not  anything  inherent  in  the  scene — 
it  is  only  a  by-fact,  as  it  were,  and  its  accidental  nature  is 
best  conveyed  by  tvhich. 

EXERCISE. 

Discuss  each  of  the  following  sentences.  Is  the  relative 
clause  restrictive  or  explanatory  ?  Is  the  I'elativc  pronoun 
properly  used  ?  Is  the  punctuation  correct  ?  Supply  tlie 
proper  pronoun — 7vho,  which,  or  thai — where  the  omission 
is  indicated  by  a  long  dash. 

The  second  pedestrian  who  was  lame  carried  a  cane. 

I  arrived  at  the  appointed  time  and  my  friend  took  me  to  the 
kennels  from  which  four  large  greyhounds  were  Hberated. 

I  arrived  at  the  appointed  time  and  my  friend  took  me  to  the 
kennel  in  which  he  kept  his  favorite  greyhound. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  last  doctrine  raises  a  point  which 
seems  to  require  explanation. 

It  is  a  game  that,  I  warn  you,  you  will  soon  weary  of. 

The  snow had  been  thoroughly  soaked  by  the  rain  began 

to  slide  down  the  mountain. 

Each  Chinaman  has  a  lined  basket he   draws  after  him 

along  the  I'ow  on he  is  working. 

It  was  the  great  full  moon had  just  risen he  had  mis- 
taken for  the  tower-clock  of  the  Oregonian  Building. 

The  tiger-beetle  is  found  widely  distributed  in  California,  fre- 
quenting for  the  most  part  those  regions  —  are  sandy  and  of  a 
temperate  climate. 

The  tiger-beetle  is  found  widely  distributed  in  California,  fre- 
quenting for  the  most  part  the  waste  regions are  sandy  and 

of  a  temperate  climate. 


NEGATION.  167 

She  said  in  a  tone was  intended  to  be  emphatic  but 

was  choked  with  tears,  etc. 

Crown  him— that,  and  then  I  grant  we  put  a  sting  in  him, 
which,  at  his  will,  he  may  do  danger  with. — /.  Ccesar,  ii,  1. 

Study  also  the  use  of  relatives  in  some  of  the  selections  in 
Appendix  C — e.g.,  xxii,  15. 

41.  Negation. — Sentences  are  often  made  obscure  by  a 
careless  use  of  the  negative.  In  tlie  first  place,  too  many 
negative  words  tend  to  confuse  the  reader.  In  the  second 
place,  it  is  not  always  clear  just  how  much  or  what  part  of 
the  statement  the  negative  is  intended  to  cover.  The  "  if 
not"  construction  is  peculiarly  hazardous.   Examples: 

You  cannot  deny  that  you  did  not  give  me  warning  until  there 
was  no  longer  opportunity  to  be  of  service. 

They  are  brought  face  to  face  with  the  fact  that  law  rules  the 
world  and  governs  success  and  not  chance. 

I  regard  the  injury  as  serious,  if  not  fatal.  [Is  the  injury  pos- 
sibly fatal,  or  probably  not  ?] 

Note.— In  English  two  negatives  make  an  affirmative.  Nor  is  not  required 
between  alternatives  of  a  sentence  that  stands  in  the  negative  form,  though  it 
is  sometimes  preferable  to  or  because  it  is  more  emphatic.  Nor  must  follow 
neither  ;  nor  may  also  stand  between  two  coordinate  negative  statements,  where 
it  is  equivalent  to  and  not  and  provides  the  only  negative  necessary  in  the 
second  statement. 

EXERCISE. 

Criticise  the  use  of  negatives  ; 

A  few  glimpses  which  I  have  had  into  her  past  have  revealed 
traces  of  sorrow  and  heartache  which  I  could  scarcely  believe  had 
not  been  entirely  foreign  to  her  experiences. 

It  was  not  till  seventeen  years  after  the  treaty  that  the  Aca- 
dians  could  be  brought  to  take  the  oath  without  qualifications 
which  made  it  almost  useless. 

There  were  not  many  rime  combinations  unknown  to  the  Eliza- 
bethans, and  the  sequence  abba  forms  no  exception. 

There  was  no  slugging  or  fighting,  as  had  been  predicted. 


168  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Humane  treatment  and  wholesome  influences  as  well  as  strict 
discipline  could  not  be  supplied  in  the  penitentiary  system. 

You  cannot  carry  a  full  course  of  study  as  well  as  keep  up  the 
necessary  exercise  and  make  a  living. 

He  also  shows  that  man  and  woman  are  not  the  same,  one  be- 
ing merely  undeveloped. 

His  body  was  not  huge  and  unwieldy  because  of  a  certain  limit 
he  imposed  upon  his  appetite. 

Mr.  Davenport,  a  local  writer  of  talent,  if  not  genius,  contrib- 
utes a  poem. 

Never  omit  I  from  a  sentence  in  a  letter  merely  as  a  matter  of 
taste. 

Nothing  suggestive  of  the  slums  nor  the  prison  is  ever  men- 
tioned nor  presented  to  their  gaze. 

They  were  never  seen  nor  heard  of  again. 

There  is  no  puny  carping  nor  cavilling  in  the  process. 

42.  Ellipsis. — Brevity  is  nearly  always  desirable,  and  the 
art  of  throwing  away  superfluous  words  is,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  one  to  be  cultivated.  But  certain  ellipses  are  inele- 
gant or  best  confined  to  colloquial  speech — the  omission  of 
the  relative  pronoun,  for  example,  as  in  "You  are  just  the 
man  I  am  looking  for."  Other  ellipses  result  in  obscurity 
and  are  therefore  to  be  avoided  altogether.  They  are  of 
great  variety,  ranging  from  the  omission  of  an  article  or  a 
preposition  (cp.  39)  to  the  omission  of  an  entire  clause. 
Examples  will  be  of  more  service  than  analysis : 

You  can  procure  them  of  the  grocer  and  druggist. 

Being  just  now  much  in  need  of  money,  a  friend  of  mine  sug- 
gests that  I  write  to  you. 

Their  ammunition,  too,  was  giving  out  as  well  as  the  English. 

Between  the  chief  building  and  western  wing  arose  a  very  tall 
and  rather  slender  square  chimney  of  hard  Dutch  bricks,  alter- 
nately black  and  red.  [Supply  made  after  chimney  and  the 
attachment  of  black  and  red  becomes  at  once  apparent.] 

Early  Roman  beliefs  differed  somewhat  from  the  Greeks.  [Write 
"  from  those  of  the  Greeks,"  or  "  from  early  Grecian  beliefs."] 


ELLIPSIS.  169 

He  was  not  half  so  eager  to  see  her  as  her  brother.  [Supply 
after  as  either  was  or  to  see,  according  to  meaning.] 

Miss  M.  E.  Stratton,  a  teacher  in  the  Franklin  High  School,  dis- 
qualified for  the  university  by  Professor  Brooks,  writes  in  ex- 
planation. [It  is  the  high  school  which  the  writer  meant  to  say 
was  "  disqualified."] 

Passing  down  the  pier  later  in  the  day  we  noticed  all  the  shops 
were  filled  with  women.  [At  first  reading  s7w]js  will  be  taken 
as  object  of  noticed.] 

I  am  so  glad  he  came. 

The  fault  exemplified  in  the  last  sentence  is  peculiarly 
distressing.  It  is  sometimes  said  to  be  peculiarly  feminine. 
This  so  is  practically  meaningless  without  something  to 
measure  it  by,  and  tlie  reader  naturally  expects  a  comple- 
ment. This  is  also  true  of  certain  demonstrative  words, 
such  as  the  and  that.  Take  the  sentence,  "  If  the  ques- 
tioning faculty  of  a  child  be  not  wisely  directed  he  soon 
becomes  disagreeable  and  easily  grows  into  that  deplorable 
condition  of  the  overinquisitive  person  who  is  shunned  by 
all."  Use  simply  the  instead  of  that  before  deplorable. 
The  that  would  appear  to  be  an  appeal  to  the  reader's  own 
knowledge — a  sort  of  "you  know  what."  A  disturbing 
element  is  introduced  and  much  of  the  direct  force  of  the 
statement  is  lost.  Besides,  that  leads  one  to  expect  a  de- 
fining clause  following,  and  thus  the  reader  is  deceived. 
Mark  a  similar  abuse  of  the  word  the  in  the  third  example 
cited  on  page  164. 

There  is  a  species  of  ellipsis  often  affected  in  letter-writ- 
ing, viz.,  the  omission  of  the  pronoun  /.  It  is  more  a  viola- 
tion of  good  taste  than  of  clearness.  It  certainly  does  not 
help  to  relieve  a  letter  of  any  egotistic  tone,  for  self-con- 
sciousness is  more  conspicuous  where  the  /  is  omitted  than 
where  it  is  naturally  used.  And  as  for  brevity,  the  rule  even 
among  business  men  is  "•  courtesy  before  brevity."  The 
following  is  an  example  of  the  error; 


170  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Have  received  your  invitation  to  spend  a  week  with  you  in 
the  country,  and  will  accept  with  pleasure. 

EXERCISE. 

Make  the  sentences  clear  by  supplying  omitted  words : 

That  is  the  way  I  learned. 

The  plantlets  are  dug  up  and  planted  in  a  new  bed. 

He  learned  from  the  hotel  register  that  his  uncle  and  daughter 
were  in  the  city. 

He  holds  that  the  education  of  woman  is  necessary,  but  in 
accordance  with  natural  laws. 

When  in  Japan  last  year  it  was  my  good  fortune  to  make  the 
acquaintance  of  Fukuchi  Gen-ichiro,  who  is  frequently  described 
in  the  Japanese  newspapers  as  "the  peerless  dramatist." 

Having  been  born  and  raised  in  Georgia,  I  am  more  familiar 
with  her  geographical  conditions  than  Avith  any  other  State  or 
country. 

On  either  side  grow  thrifty,  bright-colored  carnations,  whose 
spicy  fragrance,  though  mingled  with  magnolias  and  roses,  yet 
remains  distinct. 

The  officer  was  better  disposed  to  England  than  France. 

At  first  this  piece  pleased  the  people  less  than  tlie  critics.— 
Macaulay. 

The  writers  first  named  are  known  to  have  been  scrupulous  in 
their  use  of  good  English,  and  no  other. 

Miss  Bates  looked  about  her  so  happily. — Jane  Austen  :  Emma. 

And  then  it  is  so  easy  to  see  that  she  has  such  a  happy,  con- 
tented disposition. 

Prof.  E.  Pitti,  who  teaches  music,  says  William  Dodge,  the 
capitalist,  kicked  him  down  a  flight  of  stairs. 

The  actual  wrong,  Pompilia  seemed  to  do, 
Was  virtual  wrong  done  by  the  parents  here.— Browning. 
And  this  dead  Youth,  Asclepios  bends  above, 
Was  dearest  to  me. — Id. 

43.  Reference.— Few  things  betray  the  loose  thinker 
or  tlio  incx])erienced  writer  so  readily  as  his  management  of 
reference- words.       By    "  reference-words "  are   meant  all 


REFERENCE.  171 

v^ords  used  to  refer  to  words  or  ideas  already  expressed 
or  soon  to  be  expressed — all  words  that  take  for  granted 
and  point  to  some  definite  idea  in  both  writer's  and  reader's 
mind.  Pronouns  and  pronominal  adjectives  and  adverbs 
constitute  the  majority  of  such  words.  The  difficulty  lies 
in  making  the  reference  both  clear  and  precise.  We  note 
three  common  faults  : 

1.  There  may  be  ambiguity  of  reference. 

No  sooner  was  the  heavier  bag  removed  from  the  chest  than  he 
motioned  to  Atkins  to  lend  a  hand,  and  together  they  carried 
it  into  the  adjoining  chamber. 

Thus  is  plainly  shown  what  our  policy  has  been  in  this  matter, 
and  any  reasonable  person  who  has  made  a  study  of  the  question 
will  admit  that  it  is  one  of  great  importance  to  our  country. 

There  are  several  devices  for  avoiding  this  sort  of  ambi- 
guity. Rearrangement  is  often  helpful,  and  sometimes 
such  words  as  tlds,  that,  the  former,  will  make  the  refer- 
ence clear.  But  the  best  device,  which  is  really  the  absence 
of  device,  is  simple  repetition.  "  Avoid  absolutely,"  writes 
the  Duke  of  Argyll,  "such  phrases  as  'the  former'  and 
*  the  latter,'  always  preferring  repetition  to  the  use  of  such 
tiresome  references."  * 

2.  The  reference  may  be  unnatural  or  unexpected  be- 
cause the  thing  referred  to  is  not  the  most  prominent  sub- 
ject of  thought.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  here  that  the 
subject  of  a  sentence  is  usually  considered  the  subject  of  the 
discourse  for  the  time  being.  Accordingly,  when  there  is  a 
change  of  subject,  it  is  not  often  safe  or  easy  to  make  the 
change  through  a  pronoun.  Nor,  when  there  is  a  change 
of  reference,  is  it  safe  to  repeat  a  reference-word  already 
used. 

The  brownie  did  not  originate  in  Palmer  Cox's  brain,  but  was 
taken  up  and  developed  by  him.     He  was  born  in  Granby,  near 

*  George  Bainton  :  "  Art  of  Authorship,"  p.  263. 


172  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

Montreal,  Canada,  and  there,  as  a  child,  heard  the  goblin  and 
fairy  tales  which  the  Scotch  and  Irish  people  told  their  children. 

The  failure  of  the  National  Bank  of  Illinois  came  as  a  great  sur- 
prise to  the  public  last  week,  because  it  had  been  considered  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century  one  of  the  most  conservative  financial  institu- 
tions in  the  country. — The  Nation. 

In  an  admirable  book  by  Dr.  Strong,  called  "  Our  Country," 
which  was  published  several  years  ago,  he  says  something  to 
the  same  purport. 

He  had  spent  most  of  his  life  in  the  Western  country,  and  he 
knew  its  history  thoroughly,  especially  its  darker  side. 

3.  The  reference  may  be  to  something  only  implied,  or  to 
something  expressed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  reference- 
word  does  not  accord  with  it.     (See  also  31,  9.) 

My  trip  to  the  World's  Fair  included  a  brief  visit  in  Utah. 
During  the  stay  I  learned  much  concerning  the  present  condition 
and  history  of  this  people. 

Those  who  have  never  felt  an  earthquake  cannot  imagine 
the  sensation  one  has  at  such  a  time. 

Language  is  constantly  changing,  and  this  slang  element  plays 
no  small  part  in  producing  it. 

EXERCISES. 

Correct  doubtful  and  inexact  references: 

1.  He  managed  to  convey  a  message  to  the  captain  of  the 
Guards,  notifying  him  of  the  danger  that  threatened  him. 

Another  story,  equally  strange,  was  told  me  by  the  same  friend. 
It  happened  on  the  same  day  on  which  the  previous  adventure 
occurred. 

Tlic  evolutionary  wing  of  Socialism  is  rational  in  many  of  its 
tenets,  and  more  rational  in  tlie  means  used  for  securing  their 
ends. 

Merchants  spend  considerable  money  in  advertising,  and  the 
successful  ones  all  do  so. 

2.  Paragraph  tliird  begins  with  a  good  topic.  But  it  is  very 
loosely  adhered  to. 


REFERENCE.  173 

There  seems  to  be  a  special  odium  attached  to  the  work  of  dish- 
\A'ashing,  and,  so  far  as  I  have  observed,  it  is  a  great  bugbear  in 
every  household. 

Isolation  of  lepers  has  done  much  towai'd  eradication  of  leprosy 
in  Europe  and  America,  but  it  may  still  be  found  in  localities 
where  this  simple  method  of  control  is  neglected. 

The  motion  of  the  birch  reminded  me  of  the  gondola,  and  they 
represent  among  watei'-craft  the  felidce^  the  cat-tribe,  stealthy, 
silent,  treacherous,  and  preying  by  night. — Lowell  :  A  Mooseliead 
Journal.     [See  31,  9.] 

But  the  poet  of  the  Faery  Queene  was  only  an  Englishman  to 
the  myrmidons  of  Tyrone.  He  was  no  Alexander  to  spare  Pin- 
dar's house.  In  October  .  .  .  fire  was  set  to  Kilcolman  Cas- 
tle. Spenser  and  his  household  had  to  escape  for  their  lives. — • 
A.  B.  Grosart. 

The  extended  and  sympathetic  review  of  Philip  Gilbert  Hamer- 
ton's  autobiography  in  your  last  issue  recalled  to  me  some  cor- 
respondence I  had  with  him  a  few  years  since. 

To  prepare  a  good  bird-skin  requires  great  care  from  the  mo- 
ment it  is  shot  to  the  time  it  is  ready  for  mounting. 

3.  The  question  has  often  been  raised  whether  or  not  newspaper 
advertising  pays,  on  account  of  the  great  expense  incurred  in 
keeping  them  running. 

It  was,  however,  the  influence  of  some  Japanese  printed  pic- 
tures given  to  me  by  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  who  had  brought 
them  from  there  as  curiosities,  which  gave  the  real  impulse  to 
the  treatment  I  then  adopted. 

If  your  photographer  or  stationer  has  not  got  this  envelope  show 
him  this  one  and  have  him  write  to  his  jobber  and  obtain  them 
for  you.  It's  the  only  proper  way  to  mail  your  photograph. 
Don't  accept  any  other. 

Bare  ground  is  not  so  apt  to  draw  frost  as  it  would  other- 
wise. 

The  early  history  of  California,  as  well  as  that  of  to-day, 
shows  the  evil  results  of  this  system  of  land-grants. 

A  foreigner  once  said  that  he  could  always  tell  an  American 
girl  by  the  slang  she  used  and  the  gum  she  chewed,  certainly  not 
very  desirable  qualities. 

The  finest  lectures  can  be  heard  there,  and  the  same  is  ti'ue  of 


174  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

the  instruction  given.  .  .   .   But  one  cannot  attend  lectures   all 
the  time.     At  least  that  was  my  condition. 

For  further  examples  of  loose  use  of  reference-words  see 
Appendix  B  vii,  xi  (2,  4),  and  xiii. 

IV.     EFFECTIVENESS. 

We  have  considered  the  nature  of  the  sentence,  the  rules 
tliat  must  be  followed  to  insure  correctness  of  structure, 
and  the  principles  that  underlie  clearness.  These  are  the 
essentials  of  composition.  But  most  writers  will  desire 
something  more.  Correctness  and  clearness  they  must 
have — effectiveness  they  would  like  to  have  also.  To  at- 
tract and  arouse  the  reader,  to  make  words  strike  liome — 
this  is  an  achievement  beyond  the  mere  communication  of 
thought.  Among  all  the  ways  in  which  an  idea  may  be 
expressed,  what  one  or  two  ways  are  the  best  ?  So  far  as 
this  problem  enters  into  the  material  and  construction  of 
sentences,  we  take  it  up  here. 

44.  Conciseness. — The  writer's  first  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  process  commonly  described  as  ''boiling 
down."  That  is,  he  should  concentrate  all  his  strength 
upon  the  chief  thing  or  things  he  has  to  say,  resolutely  dis- 
carding everything  that  is  unessential.  This  process  be- 
longs to  tlie  early  stages  of  composition,  and  the  value  of 
it  has  already  been  dwelt  upon  (8).  But  after  the  material 
is  duly  condensed  and  the  w^riter  is  engaged  in  the  actual 
writing  he  must  grapple  with  the  further  problem  of  say- 
ing what  he  has  determined  to  say  in  the  briefest  possible 
way  consistent  with  clearness,  of  finding  the  most  concise 
forms  of  expression.  He  must  study  simplicity  and  direct- 
ness. Too  many  words  are  quite  as  fatal  as  too  much  mat- 
ter. Examples  will  best  show  how  much  is  lost  to  effec- 
tiveness through  the  various  sins  against  conciseness. 


CONCISENESS.  175 

1.  Tautology  consists  in  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  an 
idea  in  different  Avords.  It  frequently  takes  the  form  of 
pairs  of  words  that  are  practically  synonymous.  It  may  be 
either  thoughtless  or  wilful. 

The  steamships  make  quicker  time,  but  their  freight  rates  are 
higher,  while  the  sailing-vessels  are  slower,  but  charge  lower 
rates. 

This  is  the  only  safe  anchorage  anywhere  afforded  the  ships  in 
the  whole  group  of  islands. 

Then  he  returned  to  the  hotel  amid  the  admiration  and  wonder 
of  the  fatigued  and  worn  officers. 

In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  synonyms  were  purposely 
used  in  order  that  the  language  might  be  more  generally 
intelligible,  thus:  "assemble  and  meet  together,"  "pray 
and  beseech."  Some  similar  specimens  of  tautology,  too, 
that  have  descended  to  us  in  stereotyped  forms  may  be 
used  without  offence  in  non-scientific  work:  "  with  might 
and  main,"  "pure  and  simple,"  "to  rack  and  ruin." 

2.  Pleonas7)i,  so  far  as  it  can  be  rhetorically  distin- 
guished from  tautology,  consists  in  such  a  repetition  of 
idea  as  is  frequently  involved  in  the  overlapping  sense  of 
different  words  or  different  elements  of  a  sentence.*  For 
example,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  tried  hard  to  fix  upon  my 
mind  a  lasting  impression  of  the  city  we  were  leaving,*' 
the  idea  in  "lasting"  is  already  involved  in  the  word^.T. 
This  species  of  plethora  is  much  more  subtle  than  tautology 
and  more  difficult  to  avoid. 

We  tried  a  number  of  experiments. 
I  never  supposed  it  could  be  possible. 

Every  winter  southern  California  is  frequented  by  numbei's  of 
tourists. 

The  causes  of  Japan's  recent  successes  in  the  war  with  China 

*  In  grammar  pleonasm  is  applied  to  structurally  redundant  words,  as  in  "  He 
that  reproveth  God,  let  him  answer  it,"  "Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort 
me."    Also  any  tautological  word  or  phrase  is  called  "  a  pleonasm." 


176  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

may  readily  be  accounted  for.  [We  account  for  successes,  not  for 
causes.     In  accounting  for  successes  we  give  causes.] 

It  was  probably  thirty  years  later  before  men  perceived  its  sig- 
nificance. [Either  omit  "later"  or  substitute  "  that"  for  "be- 
fore."] 

3.  Circumlocution  consists  in  the  use  of  roundabout  forms 
of  expression,  involving  words  that  could  be  dispensed  with 
if  the  construction  were  simplified.  It  is  usually  due  to 
want  of  skill,  though  it  is  sometimes  premeditated. 

Small  peculiarities  are  very  easy  to  acquire,  and  when  a  person 
does  acquire  a  peculiarity  he  finds  that  it  is  very  hard  to  rid  him- 
self of  it. 

This  cutting  down  of  the  trees  causes  the  rains  to  be  more 
severe. 

The  awkwardness  of  the  latter  sentence  is  readily  felt,  but 
it  is  not  easily  remedied.  "  This  deforestation  augments 
the  severity  of  the  rains  "  is  too  pedantic.  Perhaps  one 
might  write,  "  This  destruction  of  the  trees  results  in  more 
violent  rainstorms." 

Prolixity  consists  in  a  superabundance  of  mattei,  a 
crowding  in  of  unimportant  and  tedious  details.  Combined 
with  circumlocution  of  expression  it  gives  diffuseness. 
Verbosity,  on  the  otlier  hand,  is  a  superabundance  of 
words;  verhiage  is  words  Avithout  ideas.  Redundance  and 
superjluity  are  general  terms  applied  to  an  excess  of  either 
ideas  or  words.  Whatever  can  be  shorn  away  without  loss 
is  redundant  or  sujierfluous. 

4.  Excessive  Fredicatiooi  is  a  serious  obstruction  to  force 
of  style,  and  is  the  mark  of  an  inexpert  writer.  In  the  his- 
torical development  of  English  prose  the  number  of  verbs 
used  in  proportion  to  other  words  has  grown  steadily  less. 
We  have  learned  how  to  assert  without  really  asserting. 
Sometimes  Ave  make  an  expressed  verb  do  duty  for  two  or 
three  verbs  that  are  suppressed;  or  a  finite  verb  becomes  a 


CONCISENESS.  177 

participle;  or  a  clause  is  reduced  to  a  jDvepositional  phrase, 
or  even  to  a  single  word.  Practised  readers  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  understanding  these  compressions.  Indeed,  the 
compressions  are  in  themselves  a  stimulus  to  mental  alert- 
ness, and  perhaps  this  is  the  secret  of  their  force.  Note  in 
the  following  sentences,  both  from  Froude,  and  both  good 
examples  of  the  modern  vigorous  style,  how  many  verbs 
have  been  suppressed  and  how  many  really  separate  asser- 
tions have  been  condensed  into  one. 

Dreams  were  ranged  against  realities,  fiction  against  fact,  and 
imaginary  supernatural  patronage  against  mere  human  courage, 
strength,  and  determination. 

The  Duke,  with  the  prospect  of  a  rising  sea,  without  pilots  who 
knew  the  coast,  afraid  of  the  Downs  for  fear  of  the  Goodwin 
Sands,  and  of  Margate  on  account  of  the  banks  and  shoals  in  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  determined  to  bring  up  in  Calais  Eoads  and 
wait  there  till  Parma  was  ready. 

Compare  with  this  style  the  following,  from  Malory's 
"  Morte  d' Arthur." 

And  then  they  rode  to  tlie  damsels,  and  either  saluted  other, 
and  the  eldest  had  a  garland  of  gold  about  her  head,  and  she  was 
threescore  winter  of  age  or  more,  and  her  hair  was  white  under 
the  garland. 

For  illustration's  sake,  we  might  venture  to  modernize 
this  thus:  "And.  then  they  rode  to  the  damsels,  saluting 
each  other.  And  over  the  white  hair  of  threescore  winters, 
the  eldest  wore  a  garland  of  gold."  The  gain  in  force  by 
compressions  of  this  kind  may  be  seen  from  the  following: 

At  New  York  such  exorbitant  pilot  fees  are  not  charged  as  is 
the  case  at  San  Francisco. 

At  New  York,  pilot  fees  are  not  so  exorbitant  as  at  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

The  Canyon  is  called  Red  Rock  Canyon,  because  the  rock  that 
is  found  there  is  of  a  reddish  color. 


178  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

The  Canyon  is  called  Red  Rock  Canyon,  from  the  color  of  its 
rock. 

As  those  on  shore  watch,  the  steamer  grows  smaller  and 
smaller. 

To  the  watchers  on  shore,  the  steamer  grows  smaller  and 
smaller. 

Our  speech  is  full  of  these  compressions.  We  seldom 
realize,  perhaps,  the  extent  to  wiiich  we  carry  this  evasion 
of  predication.  "The  similarity  between  them"  means 
''  the  similarity  that  exists  between  them."  '•'  God  willing" 
means  "if  God  so  wills."'  "At  table"  is  made  to  stand 
for  *'w^hen  he  is  eating."  "As  men"  may  mean  "by  vir- 
tue of  the  powers  that  we  possess  because  we  are  men."  Let 
almost  any  sentence  of  modern  prose  be  examined,  and 
some  compression  of  this  kind  will  be  detected.  Poetry 
shows  it  in  a  high  degree.*  But  the  moment  compression 
is  carried  so  far  that  the  reader  cannot  follow,  obscurity 
results,  and  we  have  the  elliptical  style  familiar  to  us  from 
many  of  Browning's  poems.  (See  42.)  For  example, 
the  omission  of  subject  and  verb  from  the  first  ])art  of  the 
following  sentence  (by  Lowell)  gives  force,  but  the  further 
omission  of  the  concessive  particle  "  although  "  results  in 
temporary  obscurity: 

A  born  fanatic  of  fresh  air,  I  found  myself  glad  to  see  the 
windows  hermetically  sealed  by  the  freezing  vapor  of  our  breath, 
and  plotted  the  assassination  of  the  conductor  eveiy  time  he 
opened  the  door. 

There  are  otluT  kinds  of  compression,  too,  that  for  one 
reason  or  another  are  not  tolerable.  Tlie  following  may 
serve  as  examples,  the  caret  indicating  the  places  where 
elision  becomes  harsh : 

The  discovery  of  the  fire  was  ^  by  accident. 
The  oidy  college  jtaper  ^  while  I  was  at  Harvard  was  the  Advo- 
cate. 

*  See  L.  A.  Rhernian  :    "Analytics  of  Literature." 


CONCISENESS.  179 

I  shall  never  forget  one  very  heavy  earthquake  shock  ^  in 
northern  California  when  I  was  small. 

Instead  of  ^  suicidal  thoughts  he  now  desires  to  love  and  to 
be  loved,  to  be  a  man  among  men. 

She  liberated  Orleans,  that  great  city,  ^  so  decisive  by  its  fate 
for  the  issue  of  the  war,  and  ^  then  beleaguered  by  the  English 
with  an  elaborate  application  of  engineering  skill  unprecedented  in 
Europe. — De  Quincey. 

Emerson's  Journal  contains  some  wise  counsel  on  this 
point: 

"  Our  aim  in  our  writings  ought  to  be  to  make  daylight  shine 
through  them.  There  is  wide  difference  between  compression 
and  an  elliptical  style.  The  dense  writer  has  yet  ample  room  and 
choice  of  phrase  and  even  a  gamesome  mood  often  between  his 
words.  There  is  no  disagreeable  contraction  in  his  sentence  any 
more  than  there  is  in  a  human  face,  where  in  a  square  space  of  a 
few  inches  is  found  room  for  command  and  love  and  frolic  and 
wisdom,  and  for  the  expression  even  of  great  amplitude  of  sur- 
face." 

EXERCISES. 

1.   Correct  tautology  in  the  following  sentences: 

Before  us  was  a  barren  and  desert  waste. 

The  captain  did  everything  he  could  to  afford  us  all  possible 
comfort. 

Hundreds  of  men  are  employed  in  the  Utica  mine,  most  of 
them  working  under  ground  and  some  of  them  above  ground. 

Moscheles  was  fifteen  years  Mendelssohn's  senior,  but  they 
agreed  perfectly,  even  though  Moscheles  was  older. 

Cicero  was  perhaps  more  indebted  for  this  union  to  Catiline 
rather  than  to  himself. 

"When  everybody  is  agreed  about  the  advantages  of  an  educa- 
tion, it  is  hard  work  arguing  without  an  opponent. — The  Nation. 

The  very  language  which  they  both  of  them  use  in  schooling  us 
to  reach  this  aim  is  often  identical. — ^Arnold. 

Both  the  people  and  their  faith  possess  in  an  unparalleled  de- 
gree that  adaptability  of  life  force  which  accommodates  and  fits 


180  THE  SEJ^TENGE  AND  ITS  GLAUSES. 

itself  to  all  circumstances  and  surroundings  without  ever  losing 
their  identity. 

2.  Eliminate  pleonasm  from  the  following  sentences: 

New  methods  are  being  substituted  instead. 

Summons  to  luncheon  called  us  away. 

"William  Lloyd  Garrison  first  initiated  the  movement. 

People  flocked  in  from  nearly  every  section  of  the  entire 
country. 

The  streets  partake  of  the  general  desolate  nature  of  the  whole 
place. 

The  wheel  of  progress  has  turned  a  revolution. 

"What  opinion  has  he  in  mind  ? 

Upon  his  face  you  could  read  the  symptoms  of  threatening  dis- 
ease. 

Something  dangerous  threatened  seriously  to  undermine  his 
health. 

Let  us  try  to  extricate  ourselves  from  this  bewildering  maze  of 
words. 

All  divisions  of  society  must  inevitably  come  into  contact, 
though  they  need  not  necessarily  fuse. 

The  extent  of  the  wheat-fields  reached  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
follow. 

This  peculiar  mountain  structure  gives  rise  to  the  existence  of 
cascades. 

The  teachers  did  all  in  their  power  to  make  it  as  pleasant  for 
me  as  they  could. 

I  tried  in  vain  to  stop  the  flow  of  questions  constantly  issuing 
from  her  lips. 

The  cost  of  labor  in  doing  the  work  is  at  the  rate  of  a  dollar  a 
day  per  man. 

Never  before  has  there  been  such  a  serious  effort  made  as  at 
present. 

He  resolved  never  again  to  review  a  book  until  he  first  knew 
liow  it  was  written. 

The  cherry  was  not  introduced  for  several  years  later. 

The  object  of  this  education  was  more  for  general  culture  than 
for  practical  usefulness. 


CONCISENESS.  181 

The  main  motive  of  the  people  iu  seeking  the  higher  education 
is  for  bread-winning  purposes. 

The  reason  why  examples  have  not  been  provided  for  the  chap- 
ters on  Elegance  and  Naturalness  is  because  I  think  that  these 
elements  of  style  are  not  to  be  taught  by  formal  application  of 
rules. 

3.  Simjolify  the  following  circumlocutory  sentences: 
The  plant  will  not  stand  being  taken   away   from    where   it 

grows. 

The  quarantine  ofiBcers  examine  the  trees,  and  if  any  are  in- 
fected they  are  destroyed. 

He  thinks  it  is  a  rare  case  for  any  one  to  recover  from  the 
terrible  wound  of  these  poisonous  spines. 

Woman,  through  generations  of  acquiescence,  has  become  pre- 
pared for  the  acceptation  of  the  limits  prescribed  for  the  realm 
of  her  intellect. 

The  men  must  be  very  quick  on  their  feet  and  good  log-rollers 
if  they  do  not  wish  to  lose  their  lives,  as  the  occuj^ation  is  a  very 
dangerous  one. 

In  those  days,  if  any  experiments  were  performed,  they  were 
performed  by  the  instructor,  who  brought  the  necessary  appara- 
tus into  the  class-room  and  i^erformed  the  experiment  himself 
before  the  class. 

The  cause  of  this  seems  to  be  that  the  people  make  voluntary 
choice  between  the  city  and  the  country,  and  prefer  the  city. 
The  excitement  of  city  life  attracts  them.  It  perhaj^s  alleviates 
in  a  measure  the  woes  of  their  poverty  by  causing  it  to  be  forgot- 
ten. Also  in  the  cities  all  find  companions  in  the  same  condition 
as  they  themselves  are  in,  which  is  a  great  attraction  to  them, 
for  the  social  instinct  in  man  is  powerful. 

4.  Eeduce,  so  far  as  possible,  the  predication  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

They  did  everything  they  were  able. 
I  had  not  long  to  wait  for  the  mystery  to  be  solved. 
It  reminded  me  of  a  writing  exercise  I  had  once  taken. 
They  had,  since  they  were  mere  boys,  been  compelled  to  earn 
their  own  living. 


182  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES 

Living  ill  as  Tvarm  a  climate  as  they  do,  very  little  clothing  is 
required. 

It  being  hot  and  dusty,  our  climb  to  the  summit  was  very  slow. 

Mrs.  Booth's  address  was  so  interesting  and  so  well  delivered 
that  she  held  the  attention  of  all. 

Almost  every  girl,  when  she  has  attained  a  certain  age,  is  told 
that  the  time  has  come  when  she  must  commence  taking  piano 
lessons. 

About  noon  the  sun  was  suddenly  hiddeu  by  dark  clouds,  and 
the  wind  began  to  blow  and  moan  in  a  manner  which  indicated 
a  storm. 

At  the  western  extremity  of  this  sheet  of  water  was  a  fine 
large  meadow  which  demanded  particular  attention  owing  to  the 
contrast  wliich  its  deep  green  color  made  with  the  surrounding 
whiteuess  of  the  granite. 

The  day  set  for  tlie  trip  arrived  and  the  girls  had  but  just  fin- 
ished eating  their  breakfast  when  the  stage  appeared  for  its  three 
passengers.  A  ride  of  fifteen  minutes  brought  them  to  Alum 
Rock  Avenue,  a  smooth  and  level  road  which  is  about  two  miles 
long  and  is  well  shaded  by  rows  of  tall  pine-trees. 

5.  Simplify  by  any  kind  of  condensation  the  following 
sentences : 

The  roads  were  in  very  bad  condition  and  the  wind  was  directly 
against  us,  so  we  had  hard  riding. 

The  hall  was  exceedingly  noisy  on  account  of  having  so  much 
machinery  in  motion  at  once. 

The  immense  plains,  covered  with  sage-brush  and  a  species  of 
palm,  made  a  dreary  appearance,  as  the  parclied  condition  of  the 
soil  seemed  to  retard  their  growtli,  making  them  appear  scraggy 
and  ill-nurtured. 

The  crow  has  a  deacon-like  demeanor  and  garb,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  his  character  is  moral,  for  all  smaller  birds  are  hostile 
to  him.  [Reduce  to  a  single  assertion.  See  Lowell's  "My  Gar- 
den Acquaintance,"  Prose  Works,  Riverside  edition,  ITT,  209.] 

People  who  have  always  lived  in  countries  where  much  wine  is 
manufactured  are  not  given  to  excessive  indulgence  in  intoxicat- 
ing drinks,  but  people  who  live  in  climates  where  wine  is  not 
found  to  so  great  an  extent  frequently,  when  the  opportunity  is 


CONCISENESS.  183 

offered,  fall  into  the  vice  of  intemperance.     [The  thought  may  be 
adequately  expressed  in  two  sentences  of  eight  words  each.] 

Before  we  enter  into  the  treatise  of  their  customs,  it  is  first 
needful  to  consider  from  whence  they  first  sprung  ;  for  from  the 
sundry  manners  of  the  nations,  from  whence  that  people  whicli 
now  are  called  Irish  were  derived,  some  of  the  customs  that  now 
remain  amongst  them  have  been  first  fetched,  and  since  they 
have  been  continued  amongst  them ;  for  not  of  one  nation  was 
that  people,  but  of  many  and  of  different  conditions  and  man- 
ners. But  the  chiefest  which  have  first  possessed  and  inhabited 
it,  I  suppose  to  be  Scythians,  which,  at  such  time  as  the  northern 
nations  overflowed  all  Christendom,  came  down  to  the  seacoast, 
where  inquiring  for  other  countries  abroad,  and  getting  intelli- 
gence of  this  country  of  Ireland,  finding  shipping  convenient, 
passed  over  thither,  and  arrived  in  the  north  part  thereof,  which 
is  now  called  Ulster,  which  first  inhabiting,  and  afterward 
stretching  themselves  further  into  the  land  as  their  numbers 
increased,  named  it  all  of  themselves  Scuttenland,  which  more 
briefly  is  called  Scutland,  or  Scotland. — Spenser,  View  of  Ire- 
land (1598). 

6.  As  an  exercise  of  the  opposite  kind,  expand  the  follow- 
ing into  less  hurried  and  less  crowded  sentences  : 

This  cannot  be  said  of  Robert  Burns,  who,  born,  as  was  said,  a 
year  or  two  after  Blake,  made  his  first  literary  venture  three  years 
after  him,  in  1786.  Most  people  know  that  the  publication,  now 
famous  and  costly,  called  "  the  Kilmarnock  Edition,"  was  origin- 
ally issued  in  the  main  hope  of  paying  the  poet's  passage  to 
Jamaica  after  an  unfortunate  youth  of  struggle,  and  lattei'ly  of 
dissipation.  Nay,  even  after  the  appearance  of  the  Poems  and 
their  welcome,  he  still  proposed  to  go  abroad.  He  was  summoned 
back  to  Edinburgh  to  reprint  them,  to  make  a  considerable  profit 
by  them,  and  to  be  lionized  without  stint  by  the  society  of  the 
Scottish  capital.  He  then  settled  down,  marrying  Jean  Armour, 
at  EUisland,  in  Dumfriesshire,  on  a  small  farm  and  a  post  in  the 
Excise,  which,  when  his  farming  failed  and  he  moved  to  Dumfries 
itself,  became  his  only  regular  means  of  support.  He  might  have 
increased  this  considerably  by  literature  ;  but  as  it  was  he  actually 
gave  away,  or  disposed  of  for  trifling  equivalents,  most  of  the 


184  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

exquisite  songs   which    lie   wrote   in    his   later  years. — George 
Saintsbury. 

45.  Sentence-length. — The  length  of  sentences  cannot 
be  governed  by  law\  Tlie  number  of  words  that  may  enter 
into  a  single  sentence  without  necessarily  destroying  its 
unity  is  unlimited;  it  may  be  one,  it  may  be  a  thousand. 
But  length  will  affect  character,  or,  perhaps  it  would 
be  more  accurate  to  say,  character  determines  length. 
Subtlety,  gravity,  sublimity,  demand  long  sentences. 
Simplicity,  passion,  assurance,  find  expression  in  laconic 
form.  The  choice,  therefore,  betw^een  the  long  and  the 
short  sentence  must  be  determined  by  many  considerations. 
He  who  would  become  a  master  of  style  must  try  to  make 
himself  a  master  of  both. 

English  sentence-length  has  a  history.  The  average 
number  of  words  in  tlie  sentence  as  used  by  writers  of 
different  periods  lias  been  learned  by  actual  count  to  be  as 
follows  :  * 

Fabyan's  Chronicle,  1516,  63 

Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  about  1600,  41 
Macaulay,  1800-1859,  23  -f- 

Emerson,  1803-1882,  20  + 

The  shortening  of  the  sentence  with  the  development  of 
style  is  remarkable.  There  are  good  writers  of  our  own 
century  whose  sentences  would  still  show  a  high  average  of 
words — De  Quincey  for  example — but  the  general  tendency 
is  clear.  Tlie  minimum  limit  consistent  with  good  taste 
would  seem  to  have  been  reached  by  Macaulay,  possibly  even 
passed.  The  sentence  which  is  tolerated  from  the  oracular 
Emerson,  would  be  only  ludicrous  from  the  pen  of  a  less 
aphoristic  writer.  Look  at  several  good  examples  of  both 
kinds  : 
But  now  that  we  may  lift  up  our  eyes  (as  it  were)  from  the 

*  L.  A.  Sherman  :  "  Analytics  of  literature,"  p.  256. 


SENTENCE-LENGTH.  185 

footstool  to  the  throne  of  God,  and  leaving  these  natural,  con- 
sider a  little  the  state  of  heavenly  and  divine  creatures  :  touching 
angels,  which  are  spirits  immaterial  and  intellectual,  the  glorious 
inhabitants  of  those  sacred  palaces,  where  nothing  but  liglit  and 
blessed  immortality,  no  shadow  of  matter  for  tears,  discontent- 
ments, griefs,  and  uncomfortable  passions  to  work  upon,  but  all 
joy,  tranquillity,  and  peace,  even  for  ever  and  ever  doth  dwell :  as 
in  number  and  order  they  are  huge,  mighty,  and  royal  armies, 
so  likewise  in  perfection  of  obedience  unto  that  law  which  the 
Highest,  whom  they  adore,  love,  and  imitate,  hath  imposed  upon 
them,  such  observants  they  are  thereof,  that  our  Saviour  himself 
being  to  set  down  the  perfect  idea  of  that  which  we  are  to  pray 
and  wish  for  on  earth,  did  not  teach  to  pray  or  wish  for  more 
than  only  that  here  it  might  be  with  us,  as  with  them  it  is 
in  heaven .^ — Hooker  :  Eccl.  Pol.  I,  iv,  1. 

As  much  virtue  as  there  is,  so  much  appears  ;  as  much  goodness 
as  there  is,  so  much  reverence  it  commands.  All  the  devils  respect 
virtue.  The  high,  the  generous,  the  self  devoted  sect  will  always 
instruct  and  command  mankind.  Never  was  a  sincere  word 
utterly  lost.  Never  a  magnanimity  fell  to  the  ground,  but  there 
is  some  heart  to  greet  and  accept  it  unexpectedly.  A  man  passes 
for  that  he  is  worth.  What  he  is  engraves  itself  on  his  face,  on 
his  form,  on  his  fortunes,  in  letters  of  liglit.  Concealment  avails 
him  nothing,  boasting  nothing.  There  is  confession  in  the  glances 
of  our  eyes,  in  our  smiles,  in  salutations,  and  the  grasp  of  hands. 
— Emerson  :  Spiritual  Laws. 

Fight  for  Christ,  for  religion,  and  for  the  holy  sacraments  of 
our  faith.  The  prayers  of  all  Christian  people,  the  blood  of  the 
martyred  bishops,  friars,  priests,  and  laymen,  shed  in  that  your 
land,  cry  to  God  for  your  victory.  The  saints  in  heaven  are  in- 
terceding for  you.  The  priests  on  earth  stretch  forth  their  con- 
secrated hands  night  and  day  for  you.  Our  Saviour  himself  is 
among  you  in  the  blessed  sacrament.  Fear  not.  The  enemy  is 
falling  by  his  own  weakness.  The  English  nation  will  turn  from 
the  setting  sun,  and  follow  no  more  the  broken  fortunes  of  a 
mean  and  filthy  woman.  The  heretics  are  but  few,  and  of  all 
men  are  most  effeminate,  most  dastardly,  least  capable  of  war. 
The  angel  of  the  Lord  will  scatter  them.  Take  heart.  Quit  your- 
selves like  men.     I  shall  myself  soon  be  with  you.     Each  day  ap- 


186  TEE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

pears  a  year  to  me  till  I  enjoy  your  presence  in  the  Lord. — Ab- 
stract of  Lettei-  by  Cardinal  Allen  in  Froude's  History  of  Eng- 
land, XXXVI. 

The  abuse  of  the  short  sentence  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  passages.  They  are  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  a  religious  tale  called  "  She  of  the  Holy  Light,"  sincere 
enough  but  greatly  overwrought. 

Hell  was  moved  !  The  cattle  stood  still  beneath  a  burning  sun. 
Herds  were  crowded  together  panting  and  breathless.  The 
earth  throbbed  with  an  electric  thrill,  A  tremor  crept  through 
the  herds.     Lightning  flashed.  .  .  . 

"When  Lord  Carleton  heard  all,  heat  once  exclaimed:  "  Gar- 
angula  has  done  this  work  !  I  believed  it  when  I  first  saw  them 
at  the  Exhibition — I  have  always  known  he  was  great ;  I  must 
see  him  once  more. 

Lord  Carleton  sought  long.     Rome  waited. 

Sentence-length  is  largely  a  matter  of  sentence  division. 
Where  Hooker  or  Spenser  would  write  a  long  complex  or 
compound  sentence,  with  many  clauses,  Macaulay  would 
write  a  number  of  simple  sentences,  dispensing  perhaps 
with  many  of  the  connectives  (see  26).  Compression  and 
ellipsis  will  also  help  to  shorten  the  sentence.  Sometimes 
it  is  only  a  matter  of  punctuation.  Where  another  man 
would  write,  "  Other  causes  might  be  mentioned,  but  it  is 
chiefly  to  the  great  reformation  of  religion  that  we  owe  the 
great  reformation  of  philosophy,"  Macaulay  puts  a  period 
after  ''mentioned."  Where  another  would  punctuate, 
"The  country  was  under  water;  the  winter  approached; 
the  weather  became  stormy,"  Macaulay  prefers:  '*The 
country  was  under  water.  The  winter  approached.  The 
weather  became  stormy."  It  might  seem  at  first  that  mere 
punctuation  cannot  affect  style;  and  yet  it  does.  In  that 
last  sentence,  as  Macaulay  writes  it,  every  fact  is  given 
additional  weight  and  import  by  being  set  apart  from 
every  other  fact.     It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 


SENTENCE-LBNG  TH.  187 

there  is  a  loss  to  offset  this  gain.  There  is  a  loss  of  pro- 
portion :  details  may  be  given  unmerited  prominence.  And 
there  is  a  loss  of  correlation:  we  do  not  see  readily  how  to 
mass  the  separate  elements. 

Macaulay's  command  over  sentences  of  varying  length 
may  be  studied  in  Appendix  C  xxii  20-22.  There  can  be 
little  question,  on  the  whole,  that  the  short  sentence  is  one 
of  the  elements  of  a  good  style;  it  is  certainly  one  of  the 
elements  of  a  vigorous  style,  and  a  writer's  mastery  of  it  is 
one  of  the  tests  of  his  power.  Such  authors  as  James 
Anthony  Froude  and  Edward  A,  Freeman  have  frankly 
admitted  how  much  they  learned  from  Macaulay  in  this 
respect.  To  be  able  to  write  spontaneously  and  in  the 
proper  place  a  sentence  of  two  words  is  no  small  achieve- 
ment. The  unpractised  writer  may  not  write  very  long 
sentences,  because  of  the  poverty  of  his  thought,  but  never- 
theless, through  want  of  skill  in  construction,  tJio  sentences 
may  seem  long  and  ponderous.  Such  a  writer  will  cer- 
tainly find  it  worth  while  to  practise  brevity.  The  follow- 
ing work  was  produced  as  a  result  of  such  practice,  and  the 
gain  over  the  writer's  customary  labored  style  was  marked. 
The  work  of  course  leaves  much  to  be  desired;  it  runs  to 
the  other  extreme  and  becomes  unpleasantly  "choppy,*' 
but  with  further  practice  the  writer  would  probably  return 
to  longer  sentences  and  carry  with  him  a  flexibility  of 
style  that  he  did  not  possess  before. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  two-wheeled 
hobby  horse  was  invented.  This  machine  had  a  clumsy  frame. 
Its  seat  was  low  enough  to  enable  the  rider  to  touch  the  gi'ound 
with  his  feet.  The  rider  walked  or  ran  far  enough  to  give  the 
hobby  horse  sufficient  momentum  to  enable  the  rider  to  coast  for 
a  few  yards.  People  soon  tired  of  this  ridiculous  toy.  But, 
ridiculous  as  it  was,  the  hobby  horse  had  a  good  effect  on  in- 
ventors. They  began  experimenting  in  order  that  a  more  useful 
machine  might  be  produced.     The  result  of  their  labors  was  the 


188  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

three-wheeled  velocipede.  This  velocipede  much  resembled  those 
toys  of  the  same  name  which  are  now  sold  to  childfen.  It  had 
pedals  attached  to  the  axle  of  the  two  front  wheels.  The  liandles 
were  much  like  those  of  a  modern  bicycle. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Discuss  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  sentence  divi- 
sion (punctuation)  in  the  following: 

The  fact  was  that  they  both  needed  a  tonic.  And  they  got 
it.— Kipling. 

Natives  hated  Strickland  ;  but  they  were  afraid  of  him.  He 
knew  too  much. — Idem. 

Sudden  prosperity  had  turned  Garrick's  head.  Continued  pros- 
perity had  soured  Johnson's  temper.— Macaulay. 

The  English  had  not  suffered  at  all.  Hardly  a  man  had  been 
wounded.  But  neither  had  they  any  captures  to  boast  of. — 
Froude. 

Next  in  importance  comes  the  assistant  city  editor.  To  him 
are  given  all  the  powers  of  his  chief  during  the  latter's  absence 
from  the  office.  The  night  editor  has  various  responsibilities 
resting  on  his  shoulders.  Between  him  and  tlie  foreman  nightly 
occurs  a  quarrel  as  to  the  positions  which  various  matters  of 
news  shall  be  given.  [See  also  26,  exercise  2,  and  Appendix 
B  VI.] 

2.  Cut  up  the  following  passages  into  short  sentences: 
Since  the  promises  of  support  on  which  he  had  relied  had  not 

been  kept,  and  since  his  family  could  do  nothing  for  him,  John- 
son found  himself,  as  the  time  drew  near  at  which  in  the  ordi- 
nary course  of  things  he  would  have  become  a  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
at  the  end  of  his  resources,  unable  to  pay  even  his  small  debts  to 
Oxford  tradesmen,  and  accordingly,  in  the  autumn  of  1731,  he 
was  under  the  necessity  of  quitting  the  university  without  a 
degree.  [For  the  original,  see  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Samuel  John- 
son, IT  4.] 

If  we  may  not  institute  a  comparison  between  Macaulay  and 
great  actors  on  the  stage  of  affairs,  at  least  there  can  be  no  ob- 


PROPORTION.  189 

jection  to  the  introduction  of  Southey  as  a  standard  of  compari- 
son. Southey  was  a  man  of  letters  pure  and  simple,  and  it  is 
worth  remarking  that  Macaulay  himself  admitted  that  he  found 
so  great  a  charm  in  Southey 's  style,  as  nearly  always  to  read  it 
with  pleasure,  even  when  Southey  was  talking  nonsense.  Now, 
take  any  page  of  the  Life  of  NeUon  or  the  Life  of  Wesley  ;  con- 
sider how  easy,  smooth,  natural,  and  winning  is  the  diction  and 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  sentence,  and  yet  how  varied  the  rhythm 
and  how  nervous  the  phrases  ;  and  then  turn  to  a  page  of  Ma- 
caulay, and  wince  under  its  stamping  emphasis,  its  over-colored 
tropes,  its  exaggerated  expressions,  its  unlovely  staccato. — John 

MORLEY. 

3.  Take  the  paragraph,  Appendix  C  xxii  10,  and 
rewrite  it,  running  the  sentences  together,  making  as  few 
as  are  consistent  with  ease. 

46.  Proportion. — Whether  a  sentence  seems  unduly  long 
or  not  is  quite  as  often  a  matter  of  proportion  as  of  the 
actual  number  of  words  used.  Victor  Hugo  will  write  a 
sentence  of  two  thousand  words,  and  yet  balance  his  clauses 
so  well  and  relate  them  so  clearly  that  the  reader  will  not 
notice  the  extraordinary  length.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
very  short  sentence,  if  it  lack  symmetry  and  due  propor- 
tion of  parts,  will  appear  bulky  and  unwieldy. 

1.  Good  proportion  may  be  violated  in  several  ways. 
Too  many  clauses  may  be  added,  one  within  the  other,  or 
one  trailing  after  the  other,  until  the  subject  and  predicate 
are  overweighted,  or  lost  sight  of  beneath  the  mass  of 
accretions. 

The  sun  was  vainly  battling  with  the  cold  purple  shadows  that 
were  stealing  from  among  the  vast  domes  and  crags  that  crown 
the  serrated  granite  walls  that  guard  the  western  approaches  to 
Yosemite. 

If,  however,  the  clauses  are  parallel,  the  number  that  may 
be  introduced  into  a  single  sentence  is  practically  unlim- 
ited.    See   the  fourth   sentence  of  Appendix  C    xxii    1. 


190  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

And  in  scientific  description,  where  precision  must  take 
precedence  of  elegance,'  much  piling  up  of  clauses  may  be 
tolerated;  thus:  ''This  tachometer  has  a  vertical  glass 
cylinder  in  which  are  fixed  metal  vanes  which  communicate 
motion  to  mercury,  with  which  the  cylinder  is  partially 
filled." 

2.  There  may  be  insufficient  subordination  (see  37,  4) 
or  the  clauses  may  be  ill  arranged,  so  that  the  emphatic 
portions  do  not  stand  out,  and  the  sentence  is  left  formless, 
as  it  were,  without  a  definite  beginning  or  middle  or  end. 
Peculiarly  deforming  is  the  separation  of  parallel  clauses — 
two  causal  or  concessive  clauses,  for  example — putting  one 
before  the  verb  and  one  after  it. 

The  days  are  so  warm,  it  brings  the  blossoms  out  on  the  trees, 
and  then  when  night  comes  and  it  tui'ns  cold  they  are  frozen. 

Although  trying  desperately  to  check  my  wheel,  I  could  not 
help  feeling  amused  at  the  ridiculous  appearance  of  my  compan- 
ion, his  feet  held  out  at  the  side  and  his  bicycle  beyond  control, 
as  he  shot  by  me,  his  hat  and  coat  flying  in  the  wind. 

Since  I  have  retired  from  the  world,  I  no  longer  follow  the 
fashions  of  the  world,  since  I  have  lost  my  interest  in  them. 

3.  Parentheses  may  be  too  many  or  too  long. 

What  proportion  cleared  the  trench  is  nowhere  stated.  Those 
who  did,  closed  up  and  went  down  upon  the  enemy  with  such 
divinity  of  fervor  (I  use  the  word  dhinitij  by  design  ;  the  in- 
spiration of  God  'must  have  prompted  this  movement  to  those 
whom  even  then  he  was  calling  to  his  presence)  that  two  results 
followed. — De  Quincey:  English  Mail  Coach. 

EXERCISES. 

Improve  the  following  sentences : 

1.  It  is  perhaps  not  necessary  to  speak  much  of  the  value  of  a 
mastery  of  the  art  of  composition. 

Prominent  among  the  many  things  that  have  stirred  the  hearts 
of  the  youthful  Americans  are  the  stories  of  the  wild  life  in  the 


PROPORTION.  191 

early  days  among  the  cowboys  of  the  plains  of  the  Great  West. 
[The  difficulty  here  of  course  lies  largely  in  the  awkward  piling 
up  of  clauses.] 

Unquestionably,  domestic  service  does  debar  those  who  adopt 
it  as  a  means  of  livelihood  from  certain  social  privileges  that  are 
enjoyed  by  others  who  may  be  their  inferiors  in  intelligence, 
manners,  and  morals. 

This  plan  was  unsatisfactory,  as  it  was  hard  to  give  work  suited 
to  the  ability  of  all,  as  many  students  entered  college  while  mere 
boys  and  many  were  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  of  age. 

I  followed  slowly  and  admiringly,  as  they  rushed  out  to  greet 
the  boys,  about  then  alighting  from  the  omnibus,  the  noise  of 
whose  wheels  and  horses'  hoofs  we  had  heard  some  minutes 
before. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  a  man  so  able  and  energetic  as 
Hastings  can  have  thought  that,  when  Bonaparte  was  at  Bou- 
logne with  a  great  army,  the  defence  of  our  island  could  safely 
be  intrusted  to  a  ministry  which  did  not  contain  a  single  person 
whom  flattery  could  describe  as  a  great  statesman. — Macaulay. 

2.  The  day  Avas  Japanese  Day,  and  the  Japanese  were  to  have 
a  parade  early  in  the  day,  but  had  to  postpone  it  on  account  of 
the  high  wind  until  too  late  for  me  to  see  it. 

If  a  person  was  not  buried,  his  soul  became  a  wandering  spirit, 
which  in  turn  became  an  evil  spirit  if  left  unburied  too  long. 

He  had  a  nature  that  craved  friendship,  but  he  lacked  tact  and 
forbearance,  yet  when  he  committed  a  fault  he  was  ever  ready  to 
ask  forgiveness  when  he  saw  he  was  in  the  wrong. 

Huxley  asks  us  pertinently  if  we  would  not  strongly  disapprove 
of  a  father  who  would  allow  his  son  to  grow  up  in  ignorance  of 
the  rules  of  chess,  if  the  life  and  foi-tune  of  his  child  depended 
upon  a  knowledge  of  the  game. 

But  by  entrenching  themselves  behind  the  letter  of  the  con- 
stitution, they  continued  for  many  years  to  maintain  their  "  pe- 
culiar institution"  by  evading  the  statutes  passed  against  it. 

A  modern  newspaper  statement,  though  probably  true,  would 
be  laughed  at  if  quoted  in  a  book  as  testimony;  but  the  letter  of 
a  court  gossip,  if  written  some  centuries  ago,  is  thought  good 
historical  evidence.  [Cited  by  Herbert  Spencer  in  "The  Phi- 
losophy of  Style,"] 


192  TBE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

3.  We  are  anxious  not  to  exaggerate;  for  it  is  exposition  rather 
than  admiration  that  oar  readers  require  of  us  here;  and  yet  to 
avoid  some  tendency  to  that  side  is  no  easy  matter. — Carlyle. 

Accordingly,  liis  Whig  friends  have  been  reduced  to  the  sad 
necessity  of  lying  and  stealing  on  his  behalf,  by  claiming  (and 
even  publishing),  as  Porson's,  a  copy  of  verses  ("The  Devil's 
Sunday  Thoughts"),  of  which  they  must  very  well  know  that  he 
did  not  write,  nor  had  he  the  power  to  write,  one  solitary  line. — 
De  Quincey. 

47.  Variety.  — Notwithstanding  what  lias  been  said 
about  the  bad  effect  of  certain  arrangements  of  clauses,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  possible  arrangements  within 
the  limits  of  correctness  and  clearness  and  effectiveness  are 
still  almost  infinite  in  number.  These  various  combina- 
tions must  be  sought  and  practised  in  order  to  give  life  and 
flexibility  to  style.  Nothing  can  be  more  stupefying  than  a 
long  succession  of  sentences  all  constructed  upon  the  same 
plan,  subject  first,  and  verb  following.  (See  26.)  We  shall 
find  many  reasons  for  inversions  and  even  distortions,  but 
the  simple  need  of  variety  is  often  a  sufficient  reason  in  it- 
self. The  application  of  this  principle  extends  of  course 
not  only  to  sentence-construction,  but  to  almost  every  proc- 
ess and  quality  that  enter    into  literary  style. 

48.  Emphasis. — One  of  the  tests  of  a  good  style  is  the 
ease  with  which  a  reader,  reading  the  work  aloud  without 
previous  acquaintance,  will  properly  stress  and  intone  the 
different  sentence-elements.  Italics  are  often  employed  by 
writers  as  a  help  to  this  end,  and  tlie  use  of  them  is  legiti- 
mate wherever  tliey  are  necessary  to  clearness  or  where  tliey 
give  some  desired  effect  that  cannot  be  otherwise  secured 
(Appendix  C  xviii).  But  the  presence  of  italics  on 
every  page  is  an  irritation  to  the  eye  and  sometimes  an  in- 
sult to  the  intelligence.  A  striking  example  of  this  may 
be  found  in  the  novels  of  "The  Duchess.''  And  even 
some  writers  of  the  liigliest  rank,  such  as  De  Quincey  and 


EMPHASIS.  108 

Poe,  have  abused  the  device.  The  habit  of  using  italics 
seems  to  grow  upon  one,  and  to  blind  one  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  often  wliolly  uncalled  for.  Some  study  of  Poe's 
pages  will  show  that  in  most  cases  where  italics  are  used 
the  reader  would  give  the  proper  emphasis  just  as  readily 
without  them.  In  other  cases  it  becomes  the  writer's  duty 
to  recast,  if  possible,  his  sentence.  An  excess  of  italics 
points  to  laziness  or  lack  of  skill.  Many  writers  get  aloug 
altogether  without  them.  The  newspaper  of  the  present 
day  refuses  to  print  them,  and  the  news-writer  must  secure 
his  emphasis  otherwise,  or  not  at  all.  How  to  secure  it 
otherwise,  is  the  subject  of  this  section. 

1.  Transposition. — There  is  a  certain  order  of  elements 
in  the  English  sentence  recognized  as  normal.  The  sub- 
ject stands  before  the  verb.  A  word-modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject precedes  tiie  subject  ;  phrase-  and  clause-modifiers 
follow  it.  Modifiers  of  the  verb  follow  the  verb.  Any 
change  in  this  order  will  attract  attention  and  result  in 
emphasis.  Consider  the  respective  values  of  the  follov/ing 
arrangements : 

Kun  I  dared  not.     I  dared  not  run. 

Dishonesty  we  saw  everywliere.  We  saw  dishonesty  every- 
where. 

The  house  beautiful.     Tlie  beautiful  house. 

Piteously  they  begged  for  mercy.  They  begged  piteously  for 
mercy. 

2,  Climax. — The  positions  of  emphasis  in  a  sentence, 
as  in  a  paragraph  or  a  composition,  are  the  beginning  and 
the  end.  Any  word,  therefore,  that  is  removed  from  its 
normal  position  to  occuj)y  one  of  these  stations  is  made 
doubly  emphatic.  The  subject  at  the  beginning  gets  only 
the  emphasis  usually  due  to  a  subject  ;  but  a  verb  or  an 
adverb  in  that  position  becomes  at  once  conspicuous.  The 
majority  of  such    transpositions  as  have  just  been  illus- 


194  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

trated  take  advantage  of  tliis  fact.  Advantage  is  also  taken 
of  it  when  words  or  clauses  are  arranged  in  accordance 
with  their  weight  and  importance,  the  most  important 
being  reserved  for  the  last.  This  arrangement  is  technic- 
ally known  as  climax,  because  of  the  regular  ascending 
effect.  Rhetorical  climax,  however,  as  illustrated  by  the 
formal  perorations  of  public  speakers,  is  hardly  to  be  made 
a  matter  of  study,  being  only  occasional  and  being  rather 
too  obviously  planned  for  effect.  The  essential  thing  is, 
that  we  recognize  how  much  a  sentence  gains  by  closing 
firmly.  As  a  rule,  therefore,  all  modifications  and  restric- 
tions of  the  main  statement  should  be  introduced  before 
the  end.      Compare  the  following: 

He  was  very  confident  that  some  were  left  yet. 
He  was  very  confident  that  some  yet  remained. 
He  was  loolved  upon  as  a  hero  at  once  by  every  one. 
He  was  at  once  loolced  upon  by  every  one  as  a  hero. 
At  once  and  by  every  one  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  hero. 

Or  rearrange  a  few  of  the  sentences  of  Macaulay,  who  cer- 
tainly cannot  be  charged  with  seeking  climax,  and  mark 
the  bad  effect  of  putting  weak  elements  at  the  end : 

The  effect  of  the  book  is  greatly  to  raise  the  character  of  Lord 
Clive  on  the  whole,  even  when  we  make  the  largest  allowance  for 
the  partiality  of  those  who  have  furnished  and  of  those  who  have 
digested  the  materials. 

Clive  committed  great  faidts,  like  most  men  who  are  born  with 
strong  passions  and  tried  by  strong  temptations. 

The  P^nglish  governors  exercised  an  extensive  authority  within 
the  fort  and  its  precinct,  by  permission  of  the  native  rulers. 

3.  Suspe?isc. — Closely  akin  to  climax,  and  frequently 
involving  transposition,  is  the  method  of  keeping  the 
meaning  of  a  sentence  or  clause  suspended  by  reserving  for 
the  end  some  important  word  or  some  word  necessary  to 
complete  the  construction.     When  the  sense  is  thus  left 


EMPHASIS.  195 

incomplete  till  the  very  end  of  the  sentence,  the  sentence 
is  said  to  be  periodic,  in  distinction  from  the  loose  arrange- 
ment which  permits  of  pauses  before  the  end.  The  sen- 
tence just  written,  for  example,  is  loose  as  a  whole,  though 
there  is  suspense  in  the  first  half  of  it.  Compare  the  fol- 
lowing: 

We  landed)  safely)  here)  after  some  manoeuvring)  on  my  uncle's 
part)  to  keep  the  boat  out  of  the  trough  of  the  sea. 

Among  the  earliest  forerunners  of  perfume-laden  summer 
comes  the  traiUng  arbutus)  to  the  New  Englauder)  weary  of 
snow)  and  biting  winds. 

Not  under  the  snow  where  poetic  fancy  places  them,  but  be- 
neath the  dry,  dead  leaves  of  the  year  before,  do  we  seek  the 
waxy  blossoms. 

The  periodic  arrangement  has  been  somewhat  overpraised. 
Suspense  is  frequently  of  value — perhaps  few  except  the 
simplest  sentences  are  entirely  without  it.  But  the  wholly 
periodic  structure  is  likely  to  be  too  artificial  to  be  pleasant. 
Besides,  too  much  seeking  of  emphasis  defeats  its  own  end : 
where  many  things  are  given  emphasis,  nothing  stands  out 
conspicuously.  De  Quincey  is  fond  of  the  periodic  ar- 
rangement. Macaulay  is  also  called  a  periodic  Avriter,  but 
hardly  with  justice.  His  sentences  mostly  observe  a  nor- 
mal order,  though  by  careful  attention  to  j)aragraph  and 
composition  emphasis  he  secures  a  periodic  effect.  Car- 
lyle  is  a  notoriously  loose  writer,  and  yet  many  fine  periods 
can  be  found  in  his  work. 

EXERCISES. 

Criticise  the  means  used  to  secure  emphasis,  or  the  neg- 
lect to  secure  emphasis,  in  the  following  sentences : 
1.  I  disliked  teaching  from  the  depths  of  my  soul. 
Comes  Paul. 
Follow  three  things. 
Coraes  his  army  on  ? — /.  Ccesar. 


3  96  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS   CLAUSES. 

A  dungeon  horrible  on  all  sides  round 
As  one  great  furnace  flamed. 

— ^[ILTON, 

Gathers  here,  after  dinner,  a  crowd  of  listeners  eager  for  the 
story-teller's  budget. 

All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

All  that  glitters  is  not  gold. 

Not  all  tliat  glitters  is  gold. 

Yet  gold  all  is  not  that  doth  golden  seem. — Spenser. 

A  glance  at  any  printed  page  will  show  that  the  points  in  para- 
graphs which  most  readily  catch  the  eye  are — even  more  notably 
than  in  sentences — the  beginning  and  the  end. —  Barrett  Wen- 
dell.    (Discussed  in  his  "English  Composition,"  p.  105.) 

Mr.  Carlyle,  the  most  eminent  man  of  letters  in  England  in  our 
generation,  has  taught  us  that  silence  is  golden,  in  thirty  volumes. 
— John  Morley. 

2.  The  music  suggested  heavenly  choirs  as  it  floated  through 
the  air. 

It  is  needless  to  add  that  this  young  hero  occupied  for  some 
time  thereafter  the  highest  pinnacle  of  fame,  in  our  opinion  at 
least. 

Every  advanced  educator  admits  the  necessity  of  permitting 
boys  as  great  freedom  as  is  possible  in  this  resjiect. 

I  think  it  is  safe  to  say  that  more  faces  were  turned  toward  the 
sun  during  those  days  of  dread  than  were  ever  turned  toward 
Mecca  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

3.  Old  prophecies  there  had  been  that  a  maid  from  the  borders 
of  Lorraine  should  save  the  fair  realm  of  France. — De  Quincey. 

One  of  them  once  offered  mo  a  near  shot  from  my  study-window 
one  drizzly  day  for  several  iiours. — liOWELL. 

And  Willie  shook  the  tears  from  his  eyes  as  he  ran  through  the 
darkness,  far,  far  from  the  rhythmic  music  and  swirling  dance, 
and  gazed  up  at  the  solemn  stars  in  agony. 

Of  all  beings  it  might  seem  as  if  slie,  held  apart  from  him,  far 
apart  at  last  in  the  dim  Eternity,  were  the  only  one  he  had  ever 
with  his  whole  strength  of  affection  loved. — Carlyle. 

With  the  possibility  of  some  such  hazard  as  this,  in  thought  or 
even  in  practice— that  it  might  be,  though  refining,  or  tonic  even, 
in  the  case  of  those  strong  and  in  health,  yet,  as  Pascal  says  of  the 


EMPHASIS.  197 

kindly  and  temperate  wisdom  of  Montaigne,  "  pernicious  for  those 
who  liave  any  natural  tendency  to  impiety  or  vice,"  the  line  of 
reflection  traced  out  above  was  fairly  chargeable, — Pater. 

Not  content  with  an  influence  that  in  this  year  of  1895  is  felt  in 
business  and  social  life  almost  universally,  in  religious  and  educa- 
tional circles  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  in  nearly  every  walk 
of  life  on  terra  firma,  the  bicycle  must  needs  take  to  the  water. 
There  are  intelligent  prophets  who  do  not  hesitate  to  predict  that 
those  enterprising  cyclists  who  make  the  journeys  around  the 
world  will  eventually  cross  the  seas  as  well  as  the  land  astride  of 
the  new  water  wheels  which  are  rapidly  approaching  perfection, 
and  will  make  water  trips  between  Milwaukee  and  Chicago  as 
readily  as  they  now  make  land  trips. 

4.  Which  of  the  following  arrangements  would  be  suitable 
as  the  introductory  sentence  to  an  essay  on  "  The  Lumber 
Trade"?  Which  to  an  essay  on  "The  Necessity  of  Pre- 
serving Our  Forests  "  ? 

The  noblest  trees  of  the  forest  are  of  no  use  to  man,  except  as 
they  atfect  the  climate,  so  long  as  they  are  left  standing  in  the 
forest. 

Apart  from  their  effect  on  climate,  the  noblest  trees  of  the  forest 
are  of  no  practical  use  to  man  so  long  as  they  are  left  standing  in 
the  forest. 

So  long  as  they  are  left  standing,  the  noblest  trees  of  the  forest 
are  of  no  practical  use  to  man  except  as  they  aflfect  the  climate. 

5.  Eearrange  in  as  many  ways  as  possible : 

Perhaps  the  best  shot  in  North  America  lives  in  this  vicinity, 
whose  fame  as  a  marksman  has  shaken  the  Cross  Koads  from 
centre  to  circumference  for  years. 

Miss  Guiney's  latest  book  is  entitled  '•  Patrins."  We  need  to  be 
told  and  we  are  told  that  j)atrins  are  leaves  or  grass  strewn  by 
errant  Gypsies  to  denote  their  route  to  Gypsies  behind. 

Never  has  there  been  so  deplorable  a  judgment  as  that  by  which 
Malesherbes  was  sent  in  his  old  age,  and  with  his  daughter  and 
his  granddaughter,  to  the  scaffold  since  the  time  of  Phocion. 

6.  Criticise,  in  point  of  emphasis,  the  sentences  of  Ap- 
pendix B  XII. 


198  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

7.  Examine  some  of  your  own  compositions  to  learn 
what  proportion  of  periodic  sentences  you  use,  noting  at  the 
same  time  whetlier  any  loosely  arranged  sentences  can  be 
improved  by  rearrangement. 

49.  Balance. — The  word  halayice  is  significant.  It  im- 
plies adjustment,  correspondence,  poise,  sanity.  As  an 
element  of  efi'ectiveness  in  literary  style,  it  is  perhaps  sec- 
ond to  nothing.  And,  while  not  absolutely  essential  to 
clearness,  it  is  also  one  of  the  greatest  aids  to  quickness  of 
understanding.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  law  that  simi- 
larity or  balance  of  form  must  accompany  similarity  of 
significance.  For  any  change  of  form  distracts  the  atten- 
tion and  sets  the  mind  working  in  a  new  direction. 

1.  Analogous  Elements. — When  several  statements  or 
phrases  stand  in  similar  relations  and  fulfil  analogous  func- 
tions, they  should  not  be  wantonly  dissimilar  in  form. 

There  appears  to  be  nothing  witty  in  the  article,  although  the 
author  makes  several  attempts  at  wit,  and  although  there  are  a 
few  good  statements,  they  circle  about  one  narrow  point  and 
there  is  no  advance  made  in  the  discussion. 

The  rest  of  the  time  is  spent  in  repairing  things  about  the 
camp,  in  breaking  horses,  or  in  idleness. 

Buddhism  teaches  the  saci-edness  of  both  men  and  animals, 
and  that  one  should  exert  good-will  beyond  measure  toward  all 
beings. 

The  Greeks'  gift  to  mankind  was  philosophy,  science,  and  cul- 
ture ;  that  of  the  Romans,  law  and  civil  polity  ;  while  the  Jews 
gave  us  Christ. 

Contrast  witli  the  above  the  perfect  balance  of  the  fol- 
lowing : 

The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  converting  the  soul :  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Lord  is  sure,  making  wise  the  simple.  The  statutes 
of  the  Lord  are  right,  rejoicing  the  heart :  the  commandment  of 
the  Lord  is  pure,  enlightening  the  eyes. — Ps,  xix.  7,  8. 


BALANCE.  199 

And  why  ?  because  Mr.  Pitt  was  among  the  persecutors  of  his 
father  ?  or  because,  as  he  repeatedly  assures  us,  Mr.  Pitt  was  a 
disagreeable  man  in  private  life  ?  Not  at  all  ;  but  because  Mr. 
Pitt  was  too  fond  of  war  and  was  great  with  too  little  reluctance. 

2.  Enumeration. — When  the  elements  are  enumenited, 
or  stand  as  a  list  or  series,  it  is  particularly  desirable  that 
they  be  presented  in  parallel  forms.  The  first  two  of  the 
following  are  bad,  the  last  two  are  good : 

First  the  Indians  were  fighting,  then  bloodhounds  were  search- 
ing for  slaves,  and  I  think  the  last  act  was  that  of  a  fairy  ball  in 
a  magnificent  room. 

The  purpose  of  Scene  II  we  find,  then,  to  be  threefold  :  primarily 
to  further  reveal  Faust's  character,  while  incidentally  an  artistic 
and  dramatic  effect  is  produced  by  the  mingling  of  so  many 
classes  of  people,  and  last  the  introduction  of  the  tempter. 

The  original  form  of  the  word  has  been  lost  in  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing ways :  by  change  of  spelling,  by  change  of  inflection,  by 
change  of  accent,  or  by  change  of  meaning. 

The  means  are  the  imparting  of  moral  and  religious  education  ; 
the  providing  of  everything  necessary  for  defence  against  foreign 
enemies  ;  the  maintaining  of  internal  order  ;  the  establishing  of 
a  judicial,  financial,  and  commercial  system  under  which  wealth 
may  be  rapidly  accumulated  and  securely  enjoyed. 

3.  Cbrre/a/iow.— Correlated  elements  must  be  similar  in 
form  and  meaning.  One  of  the  most  frequently  occurring 
errors  in  composition  is  the  misplacing  of  correlatives  so 
that  correlated  portions  of  a  sentence  do  not  correspond. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Romans  craved  war  as  well  as  great 
architectural  masterpieces.  [Write  "glory  in  war  as  well  as 
glory  in  art."] 

Hunting  for  pearls  is  both  uncertain  in  regard  to  profit  and 
safety. 

In  this  last  sentence  the  word  both  may  stand  in  various 
positions,  provided  always  that  the  words  following  it  be 
exactly  balanced  by  the  words  following  and. 


200  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

both  uncertain  in  regard  to  profit  and 

uncertain  in  regard  to  safety, 
uncertain  both  in  regard  to  profit  and 

in  regard  to  safety. 
Hunting  for  pearls  is  j  ^^eertain  in  regard  both  to  profit  and 

to  safety, 
uncertain  in  regard  to  both  profit  and 

safety. 

The  mission  grape  is  one  of  the  best  fruits  for  the  table  or 
wine.  [Write  "or  for  wine,"  because,  as  the  phrase  stands,  the 
implication  is  that  "the"  is  to  be  understood  before  "wine," 
which  would  give  us  "for  the  wine,"  an  expression  not  idiomatic 
in  English.] 

We  have  said  that  correlated  elements  must  be  similar 
in  form.  But  when  a  writer  has  ouce  mastered  the  prin- 
ciple it  will  often  he  wise  for  him  to  ignore  this  must  lest 
his  composition  become  too  mechanical.  Addison,  for 
example,  will  write  of  "our  natural  and  ancient  allies, 
who  are  united  to  us  by  the  common  interests  both  of 
religion  and  policy,"  or  of  a  virtue  that  "does  not  only 
promote  the  Avell-being  of  those  who  are  our  contempora- 
ries, but  likewise  of  their  children  and  their  posterity." 

4.  Contrast. — A  contrast  or  antithesis  loses  nearly  all  of 
its  force  when  it  is  not  accompanied  by  balance  of  form. 
The  most  telling  antitheses  are  those  in  which  the  two 
parts  are  the  same,  word  for  word,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  the  elements  that  stand  in  contrast.  Macaulay's 
pages  are  sown  with  such  antitheses. 

Thus  the  successors  of  the  old  Cavaliers  had  turned  dema- 
gogues ;  the  successors  of  the  old  Roundheads  had  turned  cour- 
tiers. 

The  French  are  beginning  to  comprehend  the  gravity  of  the 
Puritans ;  perhaps  the  English  will  end  by  comprehending  the 
gaiety  of  Voltaire.— Taine. 


BALANCE.  201 

In  general  we  have  seen  that  balance  is  good.  But  an 
excess  of  mechanical  balance  is  bad.  Rhetorical  balance, 
too,  of  the  "^sink  or  swim,  live  or  die"  species  is  not  held 
in  high  favor.  Some  writers  become  such  slaves  to  a 
duplicate  or  triplicate  arrangement  of  phrases  that  they 
will  unconsciously  repeat  their  ideas  or  distort  their  mean- 
ing to  secure  the  familiar  effect.  Any  balance  of  form 
carried  to  the  extreme  of  monotonous  repetition  of  form  is 
bad.  Compare  47.  Macaulay  has  a  habit  of  beginning 
sentence  after  sentence  with  the  same  words,  until  the 
reader  often  wearies  of  the  mannerism.  See  Appendix 
C  XXII  9,  10,  24;  and  these  are  by  no  means  extreme 
examples.  The  ideal  to  be  aimed  at  has  been  well  set  forth 
by  Mrs.  M.  G.  Van  Rensselaer  in  an  article  on  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  in  the  Century  for  November,  1805, 
wherein  she  writes:  "The  essentials  of  good  prose  form 
are  a  graceful  asymmetry,  a  discreet  avoidance  of  actual  in 
favor  of  suggested  balance,  harmony  in  perpetual  diversity, 
no  obvious  repetitions  or  echoings,  and  yet  in  every  phrase 
a  recognition  of  the  form  and  color  of  all  accompanying 
phrases."  Sentences  like  tlie  following  show  tliat  Mr. 
Leslie  Stephen  shuns  formal  parallelism  quite  as  much  as 
Macaulay  sought  it:  "They  were  only  tender  to  Byron 
and  Scott  because  Scott  and  Byron  were  fashionable  idols." 
"The  constitution  of  England  is  the  best  for  providing  us 
with  the  maximum  of  bread,  beef,  beer,  and  means  of  buy- 
ing bread,  beer,  and  beef."  A  more  judicious,  because  less 
patent,  avoiding  of  perfect  balance  may  be  illustrated  from 
an  essay  by  Mrs.  Meynell : 

This  is  not  the  only  time  when  the  energy  of  children  is  in  con- 
flict with  the  weariness  of  men.  But  it  is  less  tolerable  that  the 
energy  of  men  should  be  at  odds  with  the  weariness  of  children. 


202  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 


EXERCISES. 

Make  well-balanced  sentences  of  the  following: 

1.  Ill  1790  one  thirtieth  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  lived 
in  cities,  in  1850  one  eighth,  and  one  fourth  in  1880. 

The  roofs  are  frequently  tiled  instead  of  shingles  or  slates. 

The  cowboy  is  usually  described  as  a  man  of  medium  height, 
sun-burned  but  good-looking,  long  flowing  hair,  a  belt  of  car- 
tridges at  his  waist,  with  a  pistol  or  two  attached,  and  riding  a 
fiery  bronco  that  bucks  on  all  occasions. 

The  cleanliness  of  the  room  and  suggestions  of  comfort,  absent 
from  the  other  cabins,  told  of  her  influence  and  that  her  departure 
had  been  recent. 

The  women  of  these  islands  are  noted  for  their  knitting  and 
industry. 

The  eastern  part  of  Colorado  is  generally  level,  and  drained  by 
the  south  fork  of  the  Platte. 

The  poetry  of  Byron  and  the  poetry  of  Wordsworth  are  inimi- 
table— the  one  because  of  its  exquisite  delicacy  and  spiritual 
beauty,  the  other  for  its  passionate  grandeur  and  its  great  his- 
toric setting. 

In  this  way  one  learns  to  be  saving  and  that  most  objects  placed 
in  safe-keeping  do  not  deteriorate  in  value  thereby. 

They  had  lost  any  notion  that  sincerity  was  possible,  or  of  what 
sincerity  was.— Carlyle. 

In  the  deepest  parts,  to  all  appearances  the  water  is  bluer  than 
indigo,  shading  almost  imperceptibly  into  a  delicate  green  as  the 
shores  are  approached  and  shallower  water  is  reached. 

2.  Young  men  collect  handkerchiefs,  autographs  of  celebrated 
people,  and  many  wear  their  hair  long  and  parted  in  the  middle. 

It  was  determined  that  on  the  first  conviction  one  ear  should 
be  cut  off,  on  the  second  that  the  other  ear  should  be  cut  off,  and 
on  the  third  that  the  tongue  should  be  bored  with  a  hot  iron. 

There  are  two  main  considerations  which  might  induce  woman 
to  choose  scientific  study  as  her  major  work.  First,  necessity, 
which  would  compel  her  to  seek  this  as  a  means  through  which 
to  enter  the  already  crowded  teaching  profession.  Second,  and 
higher  than  the  first  consideration,  is  tliat  which  influences  those 


EUPHONY.  203 

over  whom  necessity  wields  no  strong  power,  where  woman  enters 
the  field  because  nature  or  inclination  impels  her  thither. 

3.  As  nature-worship  gave  impulse  to  the  intellectual  mind,  so 
ancestor-worship  gave  the  foundations  of  political  institutions. 

As  years  ago  in  England  men  turned  from  the  poor  means  of 
livelihood  in  the  cities  toward  the  mines  in  the  north,  so  to-day  in 
America  the  improvements  in  machinery  and  methods  of  agricul- 
tural work,  employing  on  farms  one  hand  where  before  there 
were  two,  cause  men  to  turn  toward  the  cities  and  the  manufac- 
tories of  machinery  for  employment. 

His  speech  on  the  money  plank  not  only  touched  the  sympathies 
of  the  delegates,  but  of  the  American  people. 

Much  of  the  matter  it  contains  is  alike  destructive  to  morals 
and  intellect. 

The  progress  of  civilization  has  brought  about  not  only  changes 
in  society  as  a  whole,  but  has  transformed  the  suburban  village 
into  growing  and  populous  cities. 

But  professional  athletes  have  not  profited  alone  by  scientific 
progress;  the  sedentary  man  has  been  benefited  even  more. 

4.  Sometimes  they  drank  tea  with  their  meals,  other  times 
Chinese  gin. 

A  California  farmer  with  four  hundred  men  can  do  what  a 
whole  nation  of  peasants  could  in  years  past. 

The  people  were  a  simple  and  very  ignorant  peasantry,  indus- 
trious and  frugal  till  evil  days  came  to  discourage  them  ;  living 
aloof  from  the  world,  they  knew  and  cared  little  what  happened 
there  ;  fishing  a  little  and  hunting  in  the  winter,  but  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  cultivating  the  meadows  along  the  River  Annapolis,  or 
rich  marshes  reclaimed  by  dikes  from  the  tides  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  [This  desultory  style  certainly  has  its  charm,  though  it 
is  not  immediately  clear.] 

See  also  Appendix  B  ix  12,  13, 

50.  Euphony. — Ordinary  compositious  are  not  intended 
to  appeal  to  the  ear.  Yet  harsh  combinations  of  sound 
will  readily  be  detected  even  by  one  who  reads  in  silence,  so 
inseparable  are  the  written  and  the  spoken  word.  Euphony 
therefore  must  be  attended  to  by  a  writer  who  desires  to 


20-1:  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

produce  a  pleasing  effect.  Sensitiveness  to  sound  differs 
much  with  different  people,  but  if  a  writer  will  make  it  a 
point  always  to  read  his  work  aloud  to  himself,  he  is  not 
likely  to  overlook  such  harsh  combinations  as  would  offend 
those  who  are  to  read  it  with  the  eye  only. 

1.  Melody. — Such  subtle  matters  as  tone-color  and  vowel 
gradation  are  not  for  the  writer  of  ordinary  prose  to  con- 
sider. It  is  worth  his  while,  however,  to  take  precautions 
against  certain  unmelodious  combinations.  Collocations  of 
harsh  guttural  sounds,  or  of  words  that  are  difficult  to  pro- 
nounce ;  a  succession  of  similar  sounds,  either  voAvel  or 
consonant  ;  a  word  ending  with  a  certain  sound  followed  by 
a  word  beginning  with  the  same  sound  ; — all  of  these  are 
best  avoided.  Some  little  alliteration  is  allowable  in  prose  ; 
but  rime,  whose  effect  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  ex- 
pected, must  always  offend  where  its  presence  is  accidental. 

Their  hair  is  fair,  aud  they  usually  wear  it  somewhat  carelessly 
braided. 

The  ear  will  scarcely  suffer  such  excessive  sibilance  as  is  pro- 
duced by  the  succession  of  similar  sounds  in  this  sentence. 

The  sailors  mutinied  and  set  him  afloat  with  eight  other  men  in 
an  open  boat. — Mrs.  Mary  Mapes  Dodge. 

For  fine  effects  take  such  passages  as  the  following, 
wherein,  of  course,  even  j^rose  must  be  tried  by  the  canons 
of  poetry. 

Sweet  funeral  bells  from  some  incalculable  distance,  wailing 
over  the  dead  that  die  before  the  dawn,  awakened  me  as  I  slept  in 
a  boat  moored  to  some  familiar  shore. — De  Quincey. 

Bishop  of  Beauvais  !  because  tlie  guilt-burdened  man  is  in 
dreams  haunted  and  waylaid  by  the  most  frightful  of  his  crimes, 
and  because  upon  that  fluctuating  mirror — rising  (like  the  mock- 
ing mirrors  of  mirage  in  Arabian  deserts)  from  the  fens  of  death- 
most  of  all  are  reflected  the  sweet  countenances  which  the  man 
has  laid  in  ruins  ;  therefore  I  know,  bishop,  that  you  also,  enter- 
ing your  final  dream,  saw  Domr^my. — Idem. 


EUPHONY.  205 

My  gentle  Puck,  come  hither.     Thou  rememberest 

Since  once  I  sat  upon  a  promontory, 

And  heard  a  mermaid  on  a  dolphin's  back 

Uttering  such  dulcet  and  harmonious  breath 

That  the  rude  sea  grew  civil  at  her  song 

And  certain  stars  shot  madly  from  their  spheres, 

To  hear  the  sea-maid's  music. — Shakespeare. 

2.  Rhythm. — Laws  of  rhythm  liave  never  been  established. 
Metre,  as  employed  in  poetry,  can  be  mathematically  meas- 
ured ;  but  prose  is  freer,  and  it  is  commonly  considered 
bad  taste  to  introduce  actually  metrical  passages  into  what 
assumes  to  be  prose — though  Dickens  did  it,  and  Kobert 
IngersoU  does  it.  Yet  there  should  be  some  consideration 
for  rhythm,  some  attempt  to  secure  a  regular  and  easy  flow 
of  words.  Sudden  breaks  and  digressions  that  interrupt 
the  forward  movement  of  the  sentence  should  be  avoided. 
Abruptness  at  the  close  is  particularly  disagreeable  ;  and 
this  is  the  reason  for  the  old  rule  that  a  sentence  should  not 
close  with  a  preposition  where  such  a  close  may  be  avoided 
without  a  suspicion  of  pedantry.  But  rhythm  in  its  larger 
sense  is  a  matter  of  judgment  and  taste,  not  of  rule. 
Suffice  it  here  to  give  a  few  examples  of  harsh  rhythm,  and 
to  refer,  for  models  of  good  rhythm,  to  such  passages  in  the 
Appendix  as  the  following:    C  xv  1;  xviii  4,  9,  10. 

His  answer  was,  to  say  the  least,  for  I  dislike  to  charge  any- 
body with  boorishness,  curt. 

Tlie  remedy  is  warranted  to  make  every  person  who  is  suffering 
with  gastric  derangement  and  who  will  use  it  faithfully  accord- 
ing to  directions,  well. 

"What  conceivable  principle  of  selection  can  our  author  have 
proceeded  on  ? 

In  the  afternoon  about  two  o'clock  we  made  ready.  [Compare 
"  About  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon."] 

Oral  examinations,  fifty  years  ago,  were  given  by  the  instruc- 
tor, upon  the  text-book  used,  at  the  last  of  the  term  only,  whereas 


206  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  CLAUSES. 

it  is  the  custom  now  to  give  tlirough  the  semester  written  exam- 
inations at  irregular  intervals. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  violations  of  euphony  in  the  following: 

Avoid  any  appearance  of  incoherence. 

"We  intended  to  attend  the  Commencement  exercises. 

Our  expenses  exceeded  our  expectations. 

He  is  evidently  extremely  cowardly. 

I  was  constantly  reminded  of  what  would  likely  come  by  an  old 
man  who  was  selling  gum. 

The  last  strokes  seemed  slow  and  deliberate. 

This  method  is  now  being  introduced  into  practice  in  innumer- 
able institutions. 

The  effect  which  his  first  confessions  produced  induced  him  to 
affect  much  that  he  did  not  feel. — Macaulay. 

Sir  Launfal  flashed  forth  in  his  maiden  mail. — Lowell. 

Hang  my  idle  armor  up  on  the  wall.^ — Id. 

In  short,  in  their  lugubrious  view  of  the  case,  Died  hy  her  own 
cooking  would  shortly  render  me  appropriate  service  as  an  epi- 
taph. 

Fondly  do  we  hope,  fervently  do  we  pray,  that  this  mighty 
scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass  away. — Lincoln's  Second  Inau- 
gural Address. 

He  wanders  like  a  wild  Ishmaelite,  in  a  world  of  which  he  is  as 
the  spiritual  liglit,  either  the  guidance  or  the  misguidance! — Car- 

LYLE. 

He  uses  many  expressions  that  I  cannot  make  much  out  of. 

It  was — it  seemed  almost  too  good  to  be  true — the  very  box 
he  had  been  looking  so  long  and  with  such  infinite  pains  for. 

In  a  certain  part  of  Germany,  in  one  of  the  provinces,  lived  a 
cobbler  named  Miller. 

They  had,  only  a  morning  or  two  before,  inquired  each  other's 
name. 

These  tablets,  as  the  world  knows,  were  found,  through  divine 
infiuence,  as  they  say,  by  Joseph  Smith. 

However,  notwithstanding  the  gloom,  every  part  of  the  city  lay 


EUPHONY.  207 

before  me,  as  I  stood  in  the  vessel's  stern,  under  every  aspect  it 
had  ever  worn  to  me. 

In  poetry,  again, — poetry  which  the  Celt  has  so  passionately, 
so  nobly  loved;  poetry  where  emotion  counts  for  so  much,  but 
where  reason,  too,  reason,  measure,  sanity,  also  count  for  so 
much,— the  Celt  has  shown  genius,  indeed,  splendid  genius  ;  but 
even  here  his  faults  have  clung  to  him,  and  hindered  him  from 
producing  great  works,  such  as  other  nations  with  a  genius  for 
poetry, — the  Greeks,  say,  or  the  Italians,— have  produced. — Ar- 
nold. [Compare  Appendix  C  xxii  18 — sentence  beginning  "  In 
spite,  however.   .  .  ."] 

Nevertheless,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  tlie  contrast  of  the 
"  natural  "  and  the  "  artificial,"  of  the  workings  of  Nature  apart 
from  the  interference  of  man  and  the  workings  of  Nature  plus 
such  interference — in  a  word,  of  the  cosmic  and  the  ethical — has 
to  be  insisted  on.  Nature  has  acliieved  certain  results,  though 
by  slow,  blundering,  and  (Montesquieu  notwitlistanding)  extrav- 
agantly wasteful  methods.  Her  processes,  however,  with  all 
this,  to  us,  rutliless  cruelty  and  prodigality,  have,  in  the  rough 
averages  of  cases,  made  for  what— rather  metaphorically,  per- 
haps—Mr. Spencer  has  called  "  fulness  of  life  ";  and  such  increas- 
ing fulness  of  life  may  therefore  be  described — to  borrow  a  teleo- 
logical  phrase,  though  I  do  net  myself  accept  the  teleological  im- 
plication—as the  "  end  "  of  evolution.  And  here  it  is  that  reason 
steps  in  and  seeks,  within  the  limits  everlastingly  imposed  by  cos- 
mic conditions,  to  find  means  helping  to  the  same  great  "  end  ''— 
now  a  true  rational  end— which,  wliile  at  least  as  effective  as  the 
methods  employed  by  Nature,  shall  be  no  longer  characterized  by 
what  in  the  "  acquired  dialect  of  morals  "  (to  use  Huxley's  phrase) 
we  have  learned  to  call  Nature's  indifference  and  brutality. 

Not  speechless,  though.  Far  from  it.  They  had  clear,  loud, 
lusty,  sounding  voices,  had  these  Bells;  and  far  and  wide  they 
might  be  heard  upon  the  wind. — Diceens. 

But  Italy  was  sick  of  civil  war.  The  soldiers,  tired  of  constant 
bloodshed,  made  their  leaders  sheath  their  swords  and  join  in 
league  and  amity,  in  pledge  of  which  Antonius  took  to  wife  Oc- 
tavia,  the  sister  of  his  rival,  while  Sextus  bargained  as  the  price 
of  peace  to  keep  his  hold  upon  the  islands  and  the  sea,  and  Lepi- 
dus,  displaced  already  from  his  office  of  command,  held  only  in 


208  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  OLA  USES. 

his  feeble  grasp  the  dignity  and  functions   of  High  Pontiff. — 
W.  W.  Capes. 

2.  Kearrange  as  effectively  as  possible  the  various  ele- 
ments of  the  following  sentence  (quoted  from  Whately's 
Ehetoric) : 

"We  came  to  our  journey's  end,  at  last,  with  no  small  difficulty, 
after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather. 

3.  Choose  the  best  among  the  six  possible  arrangements 
of  the  following  three  sections  of  a  sentence.  De  Quincey 
wrote  the  sentence  in  one  way  when  it  was  first  printed 
{Blackwood's,  vol.  66,  p.  750),  and  in  another  in  his  re- 
vised works  ("  The  English  Mail  Coach,"  near  the  end  of 
Section  II). 

We  ran  past  them  in  our  inexorable  llight  faster  than  ever 
mill-race. 


WORDS   AND   PHRASES. 

The  choice  of  words  is  the  least  mechanical  process  of 
composition  and  therefore  the  most  difficult  to  bring  under 
law.  Taste  is  frequently  the  sole  arbiter,  and  there  is  a 
strong  disposition  at  the  present  time  to  allow  a  writer  great 
latitude.  Perhaps  originality  finds  its  widest  scope  hero. 
We  detect  a  Carlyle,  a  Stevenson,  a  Kipling,  quite  as  much 
by  the  flavor  of  a  word  and  the  turn  of  a  phrase  as  by  any- 
thing else.  Further,  the  choice  of  the  word  naturally 
comes  last.  Even  when  chosen,  it  may  still  at  any  time  be 
revised  or  replaced.  Giving  the  "  finishing  touch  "  to  a 
composition  often  means  supplying  the  unique  word. 

We  shall  consider  words  in  three  aspects:  in  their  relation 
to  thought,  in  their  relation  to  structure,  and  in  their  rela- 
tion to  style. 

I.  RELATION  TO  THOUGHT. 

51.  Unequivocalness. — The  word  should  have  but  one 
possible  meaning  in  the  connection  in  which  it  is  used. 
Words  are  equivocal  in  several  ways.  Two  wholly  different 
words  may  be  alike  in  spelling  or  in  pronunciation  or  in 
both.  The  same  word  may  take  on  widely  different  mean- 
ings in  the  course  of  linguistic  development.  The  same 
derivative  may  be  any  one  of  several  parts  of  speech.  This 
last  source  of  ambiguity  is  most  frequently  illustrated  by 
the  participles,  both  present  and  past. 

309 


210  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

Creede  Will  Contest.  [A  newspaper  headline.  Each  word  was 
meant  to  be  read  as  a  noun.  Compare  the  triple  equivocation  in 
the  foot-note  to  1.] 

Macaulay  delighted  in  thus  presenting  the  contrary,  in  telling 
what  was  not  true  before  telling  what  was  true.  [What  may  be 
either  the  interrogative  (=  tvhat  things)  or  the  compound  relative 
(=  that  which)  J] 

It  was  impossible  to  avoid  entangling  alliances.  [Entangling 
may  either  govern  alliances  or  qualify  it.] 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  words  of  equivocal  meaning: 

There  is  no  little  jealousy  in  Bismarck. 

The  importance  of  these  questions  arising  in  Goethe's  mind  at 
that  age  is  very  great. 

However,  one  afternoon  I  was  called  over  to  the  Executive 
Chamber  and  found,  to  my  surprise,  the  President  alone  with  Dr. 
Leyds,  and  both  prepared  to  help  me. 

On  the  night  of  his  arrival,  too,  the  few  Flemish  pilots  that  he 
had  slipped  overboard  in  the  darkness,  stole  the  cock-boats,  set 
their  shirts  for  sails,  and  made  for  Fhishing. — Froude. 

52.  Precision. — Tlie  word  should  convey  the  exact  idea, 
and  not  an  allied  one.  As  thought  grows  more  compli- 
cated, and  as  distinctions  grow  more  subtle,  language  must 
grow  more  precise.  Words  are  gradually  set  apart  for 
special  meanings.  Accordingly,  the  writer  must  study  his 
vocabulary,  make  himself  familiar  with  the  accepted  sig- 
nification of  words,  and  never  rest  content  until  his  words 
convey  exactly  his  meaning.  For  example,  in  the  sen- 
tence just  written,  significance  could  not  replace  significa- 
tion— it  implies  too  mucli.  A  look  has  significance.  Of 
course  a  word  may  have  significance  also,  in  addition  to  its 
signification.  So  for  rhetorical  ambiguity  we  use  the 
awkward  word  cquivocalness,  because  equivocation  lias 
come  to  signify  intentional  ambiguity.      Indeed,  so  strong 


PRECISION.  211 

is  this  latter  idea  in  the  adjective  equivocal  that  even 
equivocalness  is  hardly  the  colorless  word  we  could  desire. 
Affection  must  be  distinguished  from  love,  and  love  from 
charity.  Observance  does  not  mean  observation.  The 
necessity  of  living  is  a  very  different  thing  from  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  Many  words  are  relative  in  their  meaning. 
Do  not  write,  "He  lives  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  city." 
Portion  implies  division,  allotment.  Do  not  write  "He 
was  hit  by  a  ball."  Write  struck,  for  hit  implies  aim. 
"  He  was  hit  with  a  bull,'"'  may  be  all  right,  since  with 
signifies  the  instrument,  which  in  turn  implies  agency, 
which  in  turn  may  imply  intention  and  aim.  Avoid  the 
vague  use  of  such  words  as  factor,  jjhase,  element,  q^iality, 
feature. 

Again,  avoid  the  colloquial  abuse  of  words  that  should 
have  a  very  definite,  and  frequently  a  very  strong,  meaning. 
Do  not  apply  elegant  to  a  pie,  nor  splendid  to  a  drive,  nor 
lovely  to  a  spring  bonnet,  nor  aivful  to  an  otherwise  un- 
qualified time.  Keep  these  words  pure  and  raise  your  own 
credit  for  logical  thinking  and  conscientious  writing. 

What  English  may  become  in  the  hands  of  one  who  is 
ignorant  of  the  exact  meaning  of  words  and  reckless  in 
their  use  may  be  illustrated  by  an  extreme  and  ludicrous 
example  accredited  to  a  country  newspaper  whose  name  it 
is  only  charity  to  withhold: 

An  element  that  often  forms  a  baricadure  to  enjoyments  at  a 
dance  is  the  rowdy  group  that  is  witnessed  at  almost  each  and 
every  dance  that  is  given  at  the  dancing  halls. 

Their  unrelenting  and  remarkable  desire  to  raise  a  disturbance 
proves  a  great  detriment  to  the  proceedings  of  a  jolly  evening, 
and  in  many  cases  entirely  disbands  the  favored  gatherings  and 
leaves  the  hall  to  the  possession  of  the  disturbers. 

Eager  with  the  fire  of  disturbance,  they  haunt  the  unmolester 
until  he  is  overcharged,  when  he,  too,  will  raise  to  fever  heat, 
and  the  result  is  in  most  occasions  a  rough-and-tumble  deal 


212  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

which,  if  not  immediately  depressed,  will  lead  others  to  enter, 
making  the  whole  affair  a  disgusting  one,  and  the  lively  spirit  of 
the  people  present  seems  to  be  doomed  in  the  wink  of  an  eye,  the 
result  of  which  is  an  entire  jolly  spirit  abandonment. 

EXERCISES. 

1.   Eeplace  with  precise  words  all  words  that  are  used 
loosely  or  incorrectly: 

He  yielded  to  dissipation. 

The  earth  bears  a  sombre  look. 

Experienced  horsemen  give  much  attention  to  the  developing 
of  good  stalls. 

Spenser  and  his  household  had  to  escape  for  their  lives. 

In  the  immediate  block  lived  his  three  nephews. 

His  sudden  appearance  at  the  fire  is  pretty  good  proof  of  his 
guilt. 

The  front  view  of  the  building  presents  to  the  eye  a  striking 
appearance. 

A  dominant  feature  of  the  age  is  the  development  of  physical 
science. 

Too  little  thought  has  been  given  in  our  schools  to  the  essential 
qualities  of  a  useful  and  happy  life. 

It  has  been  the  essential  duty  of  the  philosopher  to  study  those 
forces  which  tend  to  increase  the  happiness  or  destroy  the  pleas- 
ures of  society.  Foremost  among  these  forces  is  novel-reading,  a 
practice  which  is  becoming  more  prevalent  every  day  and  which 
has  already  grown  to  enormous  propensities. 

No  sociologist  has  ever  set  forth  in  clear  and  concise  terms  the 
causes  of  divorce.  At  this  juncture  I  shall  attempt  to  offer  a 
few  remarks  which  may  throw  light  upon  the  subject.  By  study- 
ing the  laws  of  inheritance  we  are  taught  that  the  offspring  is 
strongly  addicted  to  the  habits  of  his  ancestors.  We  find  also 
that  those  tendencies  which  have  been  inherited  from  the  great- 
est number  of  progenitors  in  unbroken  line  are  smothered  with 
the  greatest  difficulty. 

2.  Criticise  the  use  of  tlie  following  words  in  the  selec- 
tions in  the  Appendix:  B  vii  1,    anxiously,  conscious ;  B 


PRECISION.  213 

IX  3-5,  occupation,  emigrants,  localities,  indulged  in,  pre- 
hisfo7'ic,  able,  etc. 

3.  Which  words  may  be  correctly  supplied  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence  ? 

If  we  take  our  bicycles  we  shall (get,  reach,  arrive)  home 

(faster,  quicker,  more  quickly,  more  rapidly,  sooner,  earlier). 

•i.   Distinguish  the  shades  of  meaning  conveyed  by  the 
following  synonyms : 
Talent,  genius. 
Follow,  chase,  pursue. 
Fluid,  liquid,  gas. 
Amateur,  connoisseur. 
Fear,  fright,  terror,  horror. 
Support,  sustain,  maintain. 
Carry,  convey,  transmit,  transport. 
Walk,  stride,  toddle,  trip,  tread,  tramp,  trudge,  trapes. 

5.  Give  synonyms  for  the  following  words,  and  distin- 
guish between  them: 

Excess.  Hinder. 

Memory.  Evident. 

Give. 

6.  Distinguish  between  the  following  words  of  allied 
meanings.  Construct  sentences  containing  the  words 
properly  used. 

Truth,  veracity.  Clemency,  inclemency. 

Allude,  refer.  Affection,  affectation. 

Credible,  creditable.  Humorous,  humorsome. 

Contemptible,  contemptuous.  Perspicuity,  perspicacity. 

Continuous,  continual.  Perception,  perceptiveness. 

Luxuriant,  luxurious.  Imposition,  imposture. 

Verbal,  oral,  scriptural.  Abstention,  abstinence. 

Affect,  effect.  Consequence,  consecution,    con- 
Effective,  effectual.  secutiveness. 

Impractical,  impracticable.  Pvcspectably,     respectfully,     re- 
Exceeding,  excessive.  spectively. 


214  WOBDS  AND  PHRASES. 

7.  Fill  up  the  blanks  in  the  following  selection,  ex- 
amining the  respective  values  of  the  different  words  that 
suggest  themselves  for  each  lacuna.  The  selection  is  from 
"The  Stout  Gentleman"  in  Washington  Irving's  "Brace- 
bridge  Hall,"  where  the  original  words  may  be  found. 
The  sketch  begins,  "'  It  was  a  rainy  Sunday  in  the  gloomy 
month  of  November,"  and  proceeds  to  relate  an  incident 
which  occurred  while  Irving  was  detained  at  a  small  inn  in 
England.  The  descriptive  words  must  be  chosen  to  accord 
with  the  general  atmosphere  of  gloom  and  depression. 

There  were  two  or  three  in  the  room,  but  I  could  make  nothing 

of  them.     One  was  just  finishing  his  breakfast,  ing  witli  his 

bread  and  butter,  and ing  the  waiter ;  another  buttoned  on 

a  pair  of  gaiters,  with  many at  Boots  for  not  having  cleaned 

his  shoes  well  ;  a  third  sat ing  on  the  table  with  his  fingers 

and  looking  at  the  rain  as  it  ed   down   the  window-glass  ; 

they  all  appeared  ed  by  the  weather,  and  disappeared,  one 

after  the  other,  without ing  a  word. 

I   ed  to  the  window,    and  stood  ing  at  the  people, 

ing  their  way  to  church,  with  petticoats ed  midleg  high, 

and ing  umbrellas.     The  bell  ceased  to  toll,  and  the  streets 

became  silent.  I  then ed  myself  with  watching  the  daugh- 
ters of  a  tradesman  opposite,  who,  being  confined  to  the  house 

for  fear  of  wetting  their  Sunday , ed  off  their  charms  at 

the  front  windows,   to  fascinate  the  tenants  of  the   inn. 

They  at  length  were  snmmoned  away  by  a  ,  vinegar-faced 

motlier,  and  I  had  nothing  further  from  without  to  amuse  me. 

53.  Familiarity. — The  word  should  be  widely  intelligi- 
ble. At  least,  it  should  rarely  be  above  the  level  of  the 
intelligence  of  the  readers  for  whom  the  composition  is 
intended.  A  philosophical  treatise  may  contain  such  words 
as  ego,  ens,  esemplastic,  monism,  metesthetism  ;  a  political 
harangue  may  not.  No  species  of  popular  composition 
may  venture  far  into  the  special  vocabularies  of  science 
or  the  technical  terms  of  tlie  arts.  Local  and  provincial 
words,  obsolete  words  and  neoterisms,  are  likewise  excluded 


LOGICAL   CONFORMITY.  215 

by  our  rule,  and  iu  general  foreign  words  also.  Macaulay 
wrote  his  voluminous  works  with  only  the  simplest  of  dic- 
tionary English.  Almost  the  sole  justification  of  the  use 
of  a  foreign  term  is  the  lack  of  an  English  term  to  express 
the  exact  idea,  and  even  in  such  a  case  the  writer  will  do 
well  to  weigh  the  counterclaims  of  exactness  and  intelli- 
gibility. The  case  will  not  often  arise,  however.  "  We 
shall  have  no  disputes  about  diction,"  wrote  Macaulay  to 
the  editor  of  i\\Q  Edinlurcjh  Review;  ''the  English  lan- 
guage is  not  so  poor  but  that  I  may  very  well  find  in  it 
the  means  of  contenting  both  you  and  myself." 

II.  KELATION  TO    STRUCTURE. 

54.  Logical  Conformity. — The  word  must  be  in  logical 
accord  with  the  words  that  are  construed  with  it.  The 
principle  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  principle  controlling 
precision,  except  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  word's  absolute 
signification  that  is  involved,  as  it  is  the  form  under  which 
the  signification  is  presented.  The  principle  is  wide- 
reaching.  It  means,  for  example,  that  a  verb  signifying 
motion  may  not  take  a  prepositional  complement  implying 
mere  position  or  rest.  It  means  that  a  thing  must  not  be 
treated  as  a  quality,  an  act  as  a  method,  a  result  as  an  act, 
etc.,  etc.  It  means  that  one  shall  not  construct  defini- 
tions after  this  fashion:  "Manumission  is  to  set  free." 
It  means  that  one  shall  not  compose  such  sentences  as 
tliese:  "To  write  a  history  of  my  life  would  be  but  a  list 
of  uninteresting  facts,"  "A  bicycle  trip  through  the 
mountains  is  about  the  pleasantest  way  to  spend  a  vaca- 
tion ";  for  writing  is  not  a  list^  and  a  trip  is  not  a  way — 
the  one  thing  is  not  the  other,  and  no  logical  mind  will 
affirm  that  it  is.  Further  examples  of  this  kind  of  logical 
nonconformity  will  help  to  fix  the  principle: 


216  WOBDS  AND  PHRASES. 

Homicide  is  where  one  human  being  kills  another. 

We  could  not  restore  harmony  between  the  various  cliques  of 
the  convention. 

The  butler  cautiously  opened  the  door  and  stepped  in  the 
room.  [But  '•  We  were  walking  in  the  public  square"  =  "  We 
were  walking  about  in  the  public  square."] 

It  is  the  scenes  which  Longfellow  and  his  friend  visited  in 
their  travels  together  that  resulted  in  Longfellow's  translation 
and  in  his  poems  written  then  and  later.  [Scenes  do  not  have 
results.] 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Construct  accurate  definitions  for  the  following 
words,  guarding  against  such  forms  as  "  Homicide  is 
where,  etc.,"  "  Applause  is  when,  etc."  The  logical  test 
of  a  definition  is  that  it  shall  include  (that  is,  be  applicable 
to)  every  individual  of  the  class  defined,  and  exclude  every 
other  class.  The  formal  test  is  that  it  may  be  substituted 
in  a  sentence  for  the  term  defined.  Thus,  if  '*  to  enfran- 
chise" be  defined  "to  give  the  right  of  voting,"  and  this 
definition  be  substituted  for  the  original  word  in  a  sentence, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  definition  lacks  something.  It 
should  run,  "  to  give  the  right  of  voting  ^o,"  or  "to  endoio 
with  the  privilege  of  voting." 

Apostrophe,  to  associate,  blooming,  corporation,  culpable, 
gluttony,  heartily,  to  ignite,  lief,  to  lubricate,  petrifaction,  pitia- 
ble, pitiful,  syllabication,  sympathetic,  universal. 

2.  Point  out  lack  of  logical  concord  in  the  following 
sentences : 

The  tliouglit  of  living  with  Indians  she  dreaded  very  much. 
The  questiou  of  education  is  being  freely  discussed  to-day. 
Education  itself  has  never  been  questioned. 
The  methods  of  the  past  were  all  astray. 
Numerous  cases  of  semi-Indiau  torture  were  perpetrated  upon 
the  freshmen. 


LOGICAL  CONFORMITY.  2lT 

The  Republican  policy  is  protective  tariff. 

One  phase  of  popular  opinion  advocates  the  study  of  the  hu- 
manities. 

To  be  an  intelligent  citizen  requires  a  knowledge  of  current 
events. 

Have  you  been  to  the  post-office  ?  [Possibly  this  is  defensible, 
as  common  idiom.     But  compare  "  He  is  to  home."] 

The  sun  is  preparing  for  its  journey  behind  the  western  moun- 
tains. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  taste  of  English  scholars  was 
infected  with  a  morbid  preference  for  the  Latin  language  to  their 
own. 

In  the  time  of  freshets,  the  deposit  of  fine  silt  was  interfered 
with  or  mingled  with  coarser  materials. 

The  building  of  a  canal  across  Nicaragua  is  not  a  wild  and  vi- 
sionary scheme  like  the  one  De  Lesseps  attempted  to  build  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

The  plan  finally  decided  upon  was  the  Electoral  College,  or 
body  of  men  elected  by  the  states,  who  were  to  elect  the  chief 
executive. 

The  first  years  of  the  existence  of  the  Mardi  Gras  in  America 
were  crude  efforts  to  present  public  spectacles  for  the  enjoyment 
of  the  people,  but  each  year  was  an  improvement  over  the  pre- 
ceding one. 

The  apprehension  which  some  feel  that  such  a  diffusion  of  clas- 
sical learning  would  injure  the  skill  of  the  handicraftsman  he 
emphatically  denies. 

Similar  to  the  effect  of  unnecessary  novelties  upon  a  pure  style 
is  that  of  needless  importation  of  foreign  contributions  to  the 
language.  Again,  an  undue  regard  for  the  etymology  of  words 
often  leads  to  improprieties  from  foreign  importation. 

Among  the  modern  bards  of  whom  Longfellow  speaks  was 
Salis,  whose  "  Song  of  the  Silent  Land  "  was  one  of  his  first  at- 
tempts at  translation. 

A  noticeable  feature,  adding  very  much  to  the  picturesqueness 
of  the  scene,  was  that  green  blinds  invariably  went  with  the 
white  painted  houses,  and  this  effect  seen  through  the  green 
foliage  of  the  maple  trees  planted  all  about  each  home  gave  an 
air  of  neatness  pleasing  to  the  eye. 


218  WORDS  AND  PBRASm. 

The  Quizzer  Series  consists  of  about  twenty-five  small  vol- 
umes issued  by  the  .  .  .  Publishing  Co.  Each  volume  is  de- 
voted to  questions  and  answers  on  some  particular  branch  of  law. 
The  system  of  arrangement  however  is  somewhat  different  from 
most  publications  of  this  sort.  The  usual  arrangement  of  books 
designed  for  such  purposes  is  to  give  the  question  and,  immedi- 
ately following,  the  answer.  .  .  .  The  chief  value  of  these  Quiz- 
zers  is  to  persons  pursuing  a  course  without  the  assistance  of  an 
instructor.  Another  way  in  which  such  a  work  is  of  great  benefit 
comes  from  the  practice  it  furnishes  of  discriminating  between  a 
correct  and  an  incorrect  statement  of  the  law. 

55.  Functionality. — The  word  should  be  organic.  That 
is  to  say,  it  should  not  be  thrust  in  wantonly,  but  its  mean- 
ing should  be  a  vital  portion  of  the  meaning  of  the  whole 
sentence.  It  should  pei'form  a  necessary  function.  Con- 
ventional epithets  Avere  often  used  in  old  poetry  with  little 
concern  for  what  we  here  call  "functionality."  Achilles 
is  tlie  "  fleet-footed"  even  when  he  is  speaking  in  the  as- 
sembly; Odysseus  is  still  the  '"crafty '*' when  engaged  in 
most  innocent  pursuits.  But  to-day,  unless  it  be  in  liter- 
ature that  imitates  the  heroic  style,  such  usage  is  not  good. 
Even  the  laxity  of  an  earlier  age  would  probably  not  approve 
of  such  a  sentence  as  "  I  stood  on  the  bridge  and  watched 
the  brook  go  'tmirmuring  by.''  One  who  writes  thus  does 
not  see  vividly  nor  think  clearly.  ''  Darkness  which  may 
be  felt"  (Exodus),  '*'  I  heard  her  tears"  (Rossetti),  "  sounds 
that  shine  "  (Swinburne),  are  either  deliberate  exaggera- 
tions or  poetic  truth,  and  do  not  come  binder  our  stricture. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  words  that  are  without  function : 

The  ever-changing  crowd  begins  to  assemble  at  five  in   the 

morning,  and  grows  steadily  larger  until  late  in  the  afternoon. 
The  tourist  who  spends  a  few  of  his  precious  years  in  travelling 

will  find  a  camera  indispensable. 


IDtoMATlQ  tisAa^.  21  d 

We  soon  had  our  stoutly  built  boat  successfully  launched  on 
the  muddy  sti'eam. 

Here  was  a  bit  of  fur  clinging  to  a  bough  where  a  wary  deer 
had  scratched  the  w^ood-ticks  from  his  back. 

Scrupp  himself  said  that  his  story  was  not  worth  telling  ;  but 
Scrupp  was  then  a  world-weary,  hopeless,  stooping,  poorly  fed, 
and  unfashionably  dressed  old  man. 

And  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  ? 

Then,  if  ever,  come  perfect  days  ; 
Then  Heaven  tries  earth  if  it  be  in  tune. 

And  over  it  softly  her  warm  ear  lays. — Lowell. 

56.  Idiomatic  Usage. — The  word  or  phrase  should  con- 
form to  the  idiom  of  the  language.  We  have  seen  how  de- 
sirable it  is  for  general  intelligibility  that  the  meanings  of 
words  be  not  wrenched  or  confused.  It  is  likewise  desira- 
ble that  all  well-established  usages  and  forms  be  preserved 
as  they  are.  These  usages  are  often  peculiar  to  our  own 
language,  in  which  case  we  call  them  idiomatic.  Some  of 
them  may  be  wholly  indefensible  on  grounds  of  logic,  but 
if  they  are  well  established,  we  have  uo  more  to  say.  If 
writers  from  Shakespeare  to  Ilowells  write  "  I  had  rather," 
there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  cling  pedantically  to  ''  I 
would  rather."  Usage  has  established  reliable  for  rely-on- 
able,  and  langhahle  for  laugh-at-aUe,  though  not  ohject- 
ahle  for  ohjed-to-ahle,  nor  livable  for  live-in-able. 

How  very  many  of  our  distinctions  are  wholly  a  matter  of 
arbitrary  usage  we  realize  only  when  we  note  the  difficulties 
that  a  foreigner  has  to  contend  with  in  mastering  the  lan- 
guage. We  lead  a  horse;  the  horse,  hy  ptdling  hard,  draius 
the  wagon;  and  together  we  haul  the  load.  We  scoop  out 
earth,  dig  a  cellar,  and  tunnel  a  mountain;  we  excavate  all 
three.  We  shear  either  a  sheep  or  its  wool ;  we  clip  or  crop 
only  the  wool.  We  carry  fashions  to  extremes;  we  never 
take  them  to  extremes.  But  a  foreigner  gets  hopelessly 
confused  among  such   apparently  groundless  distinctions. 


220  WORDS  AND  PSRA8E8. 

Our  chief  difficulties  in  matters  of  this  kind  are  likely  to 
arise  from  a  confusion  of  two  idioms,  and  tlie  majority  of 
our  examples  and  exercises,  as  will  be  seen,  involve  such  a 
confusion. 

Farm-life  cannot  help  but  make  one  ambitious.  [Write  either 
"  cannot  but  make  "  or  "cannot  help  making."  ] 

It  was  a  substantial-looking  structure  of  four  stories  high. 
[Omit  either  "of"  or  "high."] 

He  overlooked  my  papers  and  i^ronounced  them  satisfactory. 

Another  writer  attacks  this  idiom  from  another  point  of 
view  with  about  equal  success:  "She  declared  that  she 
would  no  longer  look  over  his  conduct." 

Seldom  or  ever  comes  from  a  confusion  of  seldom  or  never 
and  seldom  if  ever.  Rarely  ever  is  simple  tautology.  So, 
usually,  is  at  about  (compare /rom  ivlience,  where  at?).  A 
half  an  hour  is  not  good.  Sort  of  a,  hind  of  a,  are  often 
criticised,  but  here  a  distinction  must  be  made.  It  is  true, 
the  article  belongs  with  the  individual,  not  with  the  species 
or  class.  "  He  is  a  new  type  of  teacher,"  we  say,  or  "  He 
lives  in  a  kind  of  tent,"  or  "  She  is  a  quiet  sort  of  girl." 
But  the  species  or  class  is  not  always  in  miud,  perhaps  not 
often.  And  so  we  say  "  She  is  a  quiet  sort  of  a  girl, ''  mean- 
ing by  girl  herself.,  not  thinking  of  the  class  girl  at  all,  and 
so  not  meaning  anything  different  from  "  Slie  is  a  girl  of 
a  quiet  sort."  We  have  merely  turned  our  phrase  about. 
Or  perhaps  we  use  '*  sort  "  in  an  absolute  sense,  as  when  we 
say,  "He  is  a  queer  sort."  In  this  case,  the  rest  of  the 
phrase  is  to  be  construed  as  appositive,  and  is  to  be  com- 
pared with  such  idiomatic  phrases  as  "  a  jierfect  gem  of  a 
poem,"  "  a  great  barn  of  a  building,"  "  a  little  slip  of  an 
Irish  lad."  Compare  this  phrase  from  li.  L.  Stevenson: 
**  '  To  think  o'  that  ! '  said  he.  '  A  strange  nature  of  a 
man!'" 


IDIOMATIC  VSAGR  221 


EXERCISES. 


1.  Define  tlie  following  idioms:  to  make  out,  to  make  up, 
to  make  for,  to  make  of,  to  make  off,  to  make  way,  to 
make  away,  to  make  away  with,  to  do  away  with,  to  away 
with. 

3.  Make  the  following  sentences  idiomatically  correct : 

He  was  not  capable  to  commit  such  a  crime. 

I  do  not  doubt  but  that  you  are  right. 

There  was  the  solution  out  of  her  difficulty. 

Much  more  must  be  done  in  order  for  one  to  succeed. 

He  pondered  for  some  time  upon  such  thoughts  as  these. 

The  buds  are  purple,  while  the  flowers  are  a  pure  white. 

There  he  stood,  looking  over  the  valley  laid  to  waste. 

The  woodsman  will  find  a  compass  of  indispensable  value. 

He  looked  for  help  from  the  father,  upon  whom  he  had  created 
an  agreeable  impression. 

One  should  give  a  broad-minded  view  to  this  subject. 

Only  the  ticking  of  a  clock  broke  the  still  air. 

Many  Englishmen  live  there  and  carry  on  the  principal  busi- 
ness interests. 

Somewhat  apart  from  the  huddled  group  I  noticed  a  comely 
mulatto  woman  of  about  twenty-five  years  old. 

Why  is  it  that  in  Neptune's  realm  we  are  so  impressionable  to 
tender  emotions  ? 

In  the  same  way  many  other  of  his  novels  have  been  written 
with  an  eye  for  the  public  good. 

I  asked  him  plainly  what  sort  of  a  man  was  Mr.  Balfour  of  the 
Shaws.  "Hoot,  hoot,  hoot,"  said  the  barber,  "  nae  kind  of  a 
man,  nae  kind  of  a  man  at  all."  .  .  .  What  kind  of  a  great  house 
was  this,  that  all  the  parish  should  start  and  stare  to  be  asked 
the  way  to  it  ?  or  what  sort  of  a  gentleman,  that  his  ill-fame 
should  be  thus  current  on  the  wayside  ?  .  .  .  The  house  itself  ap- 
peared to  be  a  kind  of  ruin;  no  road  led  up  to  it;  no  smoke 
arose  from  any  of  the  chimneys;  nor  was  there  any  semblance  of 
a  garden. — Stevenson  :  Kidnapped. 

3.   The  following  sentences  are  literal  translations  from 


222  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

tlie  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  German  languages.  Point 
out  wherein  they  fail  to  conform  to  the  idiom  of  our  lan- 
guage, and  convert  them  into  natural  English. 

Having  learned  of  this  plot,  having  collected  the  army  of  him- 
self, the  sun  being  risen,  he  spoke  these  things.     [See  34.] 

Sophocles  up  to  the  greatest  old  age  made  tragedies  ;  on  ac- 
count of  which  zeal,  since  he  seemed  to  neglect  family  matters, 
by  his  sons  he  was  called  to  judgment,  that,  just  as  after  our  fash- 
ion it  is  customary  to  interdict  fathers  managing  things  ill  from 
their  goods,  so  him  as  growing  foolish  the  judges  might  remove 
from  his  family  matters. 

This  battle  having  been  made  and  the  race  and  name  of  the 
Nervii  reduced  almost  to  extinction,  the  elders  by  birth,  who,  we 
had  said,  were  sent,  together  with  the  children  and  women,  into 
the  estuaries  and  marshes,  this  fight  having  been  announced, 
since  tliey  thought  nothing  obstructive  to  the  victors,  nothing 
safe  for  the  vanquished,  by  the  consent  of  all  who  survived  sent 
ambassadors  to  Caesar  and  gave  themselves  up  to  him. 

Edith  became  over  and  over  red,  and  saw  herself  quick  by 
stealth  about,  whether  no  one  had  heard  this  address.  That  liad 
to  her  still  not  yet  passed,  that  one  had  addressed  her  with 
"  Madam." 

At  the  hotel  Beauveau,  Miss  Lydia  had  a  bitter  disappointment. 

It  was  perhaps  the  first  time  tliat  a  desire  manifested  by  the 
Colonel  had  obtained  the  approbation  of  his  daughter. 

Now  the  silence  began  to  reestablish  itself,  and  the  mole- 
catcher  had  just  made  bring  a  second  bottle,  when  some  low 
growls  made  themselves  heard  under  the  table  ;  immediately  we 
looked  and  we  saw  the  great  brown  dog  of  Vl.  Kicliter  which 
turned  around  Scipio.  Tliis  dog  was  called  ^lax  ;  he  had  the 
liide  short-haii'ed,  the  nose  slit,  the  ribs  projecting,  the  eyes  yel- 
lowish, the  ears  long,  and  the  tail  elevated  like  a  sabre :  he  was 
tall,  lean,  and  wiry.  M.  Richter  had  the  habit  of  hunting  with 
him  some  entire  days  without  giving  him  anything  to  eat,  under 
pretext  that  the  good  dogs  of  chase  ought  to  have  hunger  for 
scenting  the  game  and  following  it  in  the  track.  He  wislied  to 
pass  behind  Scipio,  who  turned  himsolf  around  always,  the  head 
high  and  the  lips  quivering. 


hbpetition.  223 

57.  Repetition. — The  word  should  be  repeated  as  often 
as  clearness  requires.  Many  writers  have  an  impression 
that  a  word  should  never  be  used  twice  or  oftener  in  the 
same  sentence  or  in  successive  sentences.  How  false  that 
impression  is,  our  examples  will  show.  Of  course,  the 
repetition  of  a  word  is  often  reprehensible,  but  again  there 
are  situations  in  which  the  avoidance  of  repetition  is  more 
reprehensible.  In  general,  a  writer  should  not  fear  to 
repeat  freely. 

The  principle  applies  both  to  symbolic  and  to  presentive 
words.  In  the  case  of  the  former,  however,  it  is  not 
strictly  a  question  of  word-repetition.  If  a  preposition, 
for  example,  is  found  half  a  dozen  times  in  one  sentence, 
it  is  because  the  relation  expressed  by  that  preposition 
occurs  half  a  dozen  times.  And  we  have  already  seen  (39, 
42)  how  obscurity  may  result  from  leaving  these  relations 
for  the  reader  to  supply.     One  example  will  suffice  here : 

He  was  so  weak  from  the  loss  of  blood  and  a  hunger  that  he 
could  not  travel. 

The  repetition  of  these  little  relation -words,  which  gram- 
marians call  symbolic,  is  often  necessary  too  to  secure  the 
proper  massing  of  phrases.  "The  wood  is  valuable  for 
lumber  and  building  purposes."  '"For"  should  be  re- 
peated to  show  that  "purposes"  is  not  to  be  read  with 
"lumber."  So,  in  tlie  following  sentence,  "  The  income 
tax,  like  other  taxes,  has  its  advantages  and  its  disadvant- 
ages," the  repetition  of  "its "parcels  out,  as  it  were,  makes 
us  see  the  two  things  separately  and  in  contrast  instead  of 
in  a  lump.  However,  the  repetition  of  relation-words  will 
not  be  tolerated  when  the  relation  signified  is  not  precisely 
the  same.  We  may  have  a  string  of  many  clauses  or 
phrases  beginning  with  since,  or  before,  or  in,  etc.,  pro- 
vided the  clauses  or  phrases  are  parallel  in  meaning,  form, 
and  position  (see  46,   2),  but  not  when  the  same  word  is 


524  WORDS  AND  PHRA8E8. 

used  to  indicate  different  relations.     Thus  we  may  write, 

'*  With  coats  and  umbrellas,  with  lunch-boxes  and  baskets, 
with  field-glasses  and  cameras,  we  set  out";  but  not, 
"  He  quarrelled  with  unusual  loudness  with  the  foreman." 
The  case  of  presentive  words  is  somewhat  different.  Be- 
cause of  their  weight  and  prominence,  repetition  of  them 
is  at  once  noticed.  We  shall  see,  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider style,  that  there  are  cases  in  which  this  repetition 
should  be  avoided.  Now  we  consider  cases  in  which  repe- 
tition is  desirable.  In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  resorted 
to  whenever  a  pronoun  would  be  ambiguous.  Take,  for 
examj)le,  the  repetition  of  the  word  "repetition*'  in  the 
paragraph  now  being  written.     Or  take  the  following  : 

Jefferson,  in  reference  to  this  statement  of  Franklin's,  said  that 
Franklin's  opinion  was  distinctly  at  variance  with  his  (Jefferson's; 
practice. 

In  the  second  place,  a  change  of  form  may  require  the 
repetition  of  a  word.  See  the  sentence  quoted  above: 
'*The  income  tax,  like  other  taxes,  has  its  advantages  and 
its  disadvantages." 

In  the  third  place,  in  scientific  treatises,  where  there  is 
but  one  name  for  a  thing  and  where  exceptional  clearness 
and  accuracy  are  desired,  there  Avill  be  frequent  repetition. 
See  "piston,"  "cylinder,"'  etc.,  in  Appendix  C  xvii.  So 
in  all  treatises  where  a  writer  aims  to  be  very  precise. 
Matthew  Arnold  i)ushed  the  practice  to  tlie  extreme  of  un- 
pleasant mannerism.     Take  an  example: 

The  real  Burns  is  of  course  in  his  Scotch  poems.  Let  us  boldly 
say  that  of  much  of  this  poetry,  a  poetry  dealing  perpetually  with 
Scotch  drink,  Scotch  religion,  and  Scotch  manners,  a  Scotchman's 
estimate  is  apt  to  be  personal.  A  Scotchman  is  used  to  this 
world  of  Scotch  drink,  Scotch  religion,  and  Scotch  manuers  ;  he 
has  a  tenderness  for  it ;  he  meets  his  poet  half  way.  In  this 
tender  mood  he  reads  pieces  like  the  Holy  Fair  or  Halloiveen. 


REPETITION.  225 

But  this  world  of  Scotch  drink,  Scotch  religion,  and  Scotch  man- 
ners is  against  a  poet,  not  for  him,  when  it  is  not  a  partial  coun- 
tryman who  reads  him  ;  for  in  itself  it  is  not  a  beautiful  world, 
and  no  one  can  deny  that  it  is  of  advantage  to  a  poet  to  deal 
with  a  beautiful  world.  Burns's  world  of  Scotch  drink,  Scotch 
religion,  and  Scotch  manners  is  often  a  harsh,  a  sordid,  a  re- 
pulsive world  ;  even  the  world  of  his  Cotter's  Saturday  Night  is 
not  a  beautiful  world. 

Mr.  Arnold  may  repeat  more  often  than  necessary,  but  his 
principle  is  correct.  The  following  sentence  will  show 
the  bad  effect  of  failing  to  observe  the  principle  :  "  The 
truth  of  these  statements  is  made  apparent  when  we  come 
to  consider  that  seventy  per  cent  of  cases  overruled  in  the 
supreme  court  are  so  acted  upon  on  account  of  incorrect 
statements  made  in  instructions  to  juries."  Had  the 
writer  repeated  ''  overruled "  instead  of  resorting  to  the 
circumlocution  "■  so  acted  upon,"  the  sentence  would  have 
been  more  immediately  clear.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
repetition  of  "statements"  should  have  been  avoided, 
since  the  two  words  do  not  refer  to  the  same  thing. 

In  the  fourth  place,  an  antithesis  is  made  stronger  by 
the  repetition  of  all  words  except  those  set  in  contrast. 
See  49,  4.  The  value  of  repetition,  for  both  force  and 
clearness,  is  generally  recognized  by  orators,  so  that  the 
construction  may  be  set  down  as  one  of  the  characteristics 
of  an  oratorical  style. 

The  primitive  doctrine  of  the  early  church  has  broken  up  into 
a  thousand  fragments.  From  generation  to  generation  the 
harsh  sounds  of  internecine  warfare  have  filled  all  the  air. 
Year  after  year  the  ebb  and  flow  of  speculation  has  continued. 
Year  after  year  the  atmosphere  of  practical  life  has  been  changed 
or  modified;  year  after  year  the  men  have  been  struggling 
through  old  thought  to  new — from  narrow  conceptions  to  broader 
and  nobler  ones.     Meanwhile  it  has  all  been  Christianity. 

The  young  writer's  fear  of  repetition  is  something  almost 


226  WOBBS  AND  PHRASES. 

inexplicable.  It  is  difficult  to  see  liow  any  sense  of 
euphony  or  projiriety  could  dictate  such  a  sentence  as  the 
following:  •' Walt  Whitman  has  strength,  but  no  artistic 
ability  in  using  this  power."  Yet  every  reader  of  students' 
themes  will  recognize  the  formula  as  distressingly  common. 
Perhaps  our  rhetorics  have  laid  too  much  stress  upon  the 
choice  of  synonyms.  Some  study  of  the  further  examples 
given  in  the  exercised  on  this  section  will  help  to  demon- 
strate the  absurdity  of  the  fear.  It  will  be  profitable,  too, 
to  observe  Macaulay's  method  as  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing paragraph  from  his  essay  on  Addison : 

Whether  Pope's  malignity  at  length  provoked  Addison  to  re- 
taliate for  the  first  and  last  time,  cannot  now  be  known  with  cer- 
tainty. We  have  only  Pope's  story,  which  runs  thus.  A  pam- 
phlet appeared  containing  some  reflections  which  stung  Pope  to 
the  quick.  What  these  reflections  were,  and  whetlier  they  were 
reflections  of  which  he  had  a  right  to  complain,  we  have  now  no 
means  of  deciding.  The  Earl  of  Warwick,  a  foolish  and  vicious 
lad,  who  regarded  Addison  with  the  feelings  with  which  such  lads 
generally  regard  their  best  friends,  told  Pope,  truly  or  falsely, 
that  tliis  pamphlet  had  been  written  by  Addison's  direction. 
When  we  consider  what  a  tendency  stories  have  to  grow,  in  pass- 
ing even  from  one  honest  man  to  another  honest  man,  and  when 
we  consider  that  to  the  name  of  honest  man  neither  Pope  nor  the 
Earl  of  Warwick  had  a  claim,  we  are  not  disposed  to  attach  much 
importance  to  this  anecdote. 

EXERCISE. 

Improve  the  following  sentences  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  of  repetition  or  non-repetition  of  words : 

Let  us  take  some  Saturday  and  take  a  drive  across  the  country. 

The  logs  blaze  merrily  in  the  fireplace  and  fill  the  little  sitting- 
room  of  our  log  cabin  with  a  cheerful  glow. 

Thus  it  was  that  after  a  day's  tramp  in  Zurich,  after  listening 
to  the  liistories  of  the  old  castles,  he  went  home  and  translated 
Uhland's  "  Castle  by  the  Sea." 


TONE.  227 

But  the  scattering  trees  had  been  left  behind  and  the  country 
was  becoming  more  dry  and  desolate  than  ever  when  the  stage- 
driver  told  me  I  could  see  the  little  town  of  Shandon  when  we 
reached  the  top  of  the  hill  on  the  south  side  of  the  little  river. 

We  stood  in  the  stern  to  catch  a  last  glimpse  of  the  old  town 
of  Astoria,  with  its  houses  scattered  over  the  slope  and  nestled  at 
the  foot  of  a  green  hill  with  the  lone  bare  fir  trees  standing  on 
guard  here  and  there. 

The  spirit  was  held  to  be  entirely  good  or  wholly  bad. 

It  is  as  wrong  to  underestimate  one's  abilities  as  to  overvalue 
them. 

But  how  few  understand  the  terms  socialist  and  socialism,  with 
which  they  stigmatize  their  opponents  and  with  which  they  in  turn 
are  branded  ! 

Let  us  subdivide  those  preparing  for  the  legal  profession  into 
two  classes,  the  one  believing  in  a  college  training,  and  the  other 
discountenancing  all  such  foolishness. 

To  the  lover  of  comfort  and  ease,  life  in  a  typical  Southern  Cal- 
ifornia home  is  sure  to  prove  a  constant  delight.  Such  a  typical 
domicile  is  The  Bungalow. 

On  a  large  flat  rock  there  are  several  large  shallow  holes  shaped 
like  a  horseshoe,  but  much  larger  than  a  horse's  foot. 


III.  RELATION   TO    STYLE. 

58.  Tone. — The  tone  to  be  adopted  must  be  governed 
by  the  purpose  of  the  composition.  Once  adopted,  all 
words  chosen  must  be  in  harmony  with  it,  for  upon  the 
choice  of  words  more  than  upon  anything  else  does  the  tone 
depend.  The  range  is  wide,  from  every-day  colloquialisms 
to  diction  consecrated  to  poetry  and  lofty  prose.  Vulgar- 
isms the  writer  of  fine  instincts  will  always  avoid.  Ex- 
tremely pedantic  expressions,  on  the  other  hand,  he  will 
also  avoid.  How  far  he  may  "  key  up  "  his  diction  is  a  nice 
question.  In  general,  what  is  written  is  more  carefully 
prepared  than  what  is  simply  uttered,  and  we  demand  of  it  a 


228  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

more  careful  choice  of  words  and  a  better  phrasing.  In- 
deed, we  are  not  always  displeased  to  see  the  artist  behind 
his  work,  to  know  that  he  has  been  at  some  pains  to  elevate 
his  style  and  select  and  perfect  what  it  shall  be  our  pleasure 
to  read. 

The  proper  tone  of  serious  discourse  should  not  be  hard 
to  strike.  Not  only  will  one  eschew  such  phrases  as  "  got 
left,"  "got  fired,"  "right  smart,"  "awfully  jolly,"  but 
also  the  more  innocent  or  even  correct  "got  off,"'  ''got 
tired,"  "  right  handy,"  "right  off,"  "  mighty  little,"  "  way 
down,"  "  take  on,"  "  cut  up,"  *'  I  don't  think."  Whether 
one  shall  say  "I  got  well"  or  "  I  recovered"  may  depend 
on  many  things;  but  if  the  context  makes  the  latter 
phrase  clear  and  sufficiently  specific,  it  is  probably  to 
be  preferred.  If  one  is  satisfied  with  the  simplest  and 
homeliest  of  straightforward  English,  one  will  write:  "  How 
hard  or  easy  a  debt  is  to  pay  is  a  matter  of  how  hard  or 
easy  it  is  to  get  the  money  to  pay  it  with,*'  Or  one  may 
prefer  a  more  formal  and  elevated  style:  "  The  difficulty  or 
ease  of  paying  a  debt  depends  on  the  difficulty  or  ease  of 
securing  the  money  with  which  to  pay  it."  But  write 
"  liquidating  a  debt  "  or  *'  meeting  a  financial  obligation,'' 
or  substitute  "funds"  for  "money,"  and  you  reach  the 
false  style  so  much  affected  by  the  newspaper  paragrapher. 

In  general,  good  will  result  from  the  endeavor  to  improve 
the  quality  of  a  homely  or  uncouth  style.  "  But  I  would 
rather  M'ait,  I  say  to  myself,  till  I  can  improve  on  my  lan- 
guage and  get  rid  of  some  of  my  awkwardness  of  expres- 
sion." The  writer  of  this  sentence  was  advised  to  begin 
the  work  of  improvement  then  and  there.  He  was  told 
to  "  elevate  the  diction  "  of  that  very  sentence,  with  the 
following  result.  "  But  I  would  rather  wait,  I  say  to  my- 
self, till  I  acquire  a  better  vocabulary  and  smooth  down 
some  of  the  angularities  of  my  style."     The  improvement 


TONE.  229 

consists  partly  in  the  employment  of  a  vivid  figure  and 
partly  in  the  substitution  of  less  familiar  for  more  familiar 
terms.  These  less  familiar  terms — vocabulary,  style — are 
less  familiar  because  they  are  of  less  extensive  application. 
They  have  a  more  specialized  meaning  and  are  semi-tech- 
nical in  their  nature.  The  particular  gain  in  the  use  of 
them,  therefore,  is  a  gain  in  precision.  The  writer  might 
have  gone  a  step  farther  and  sought  elevation  pure  and 
simple  by  substituting  i^refer  for  would  rather  and  until 
for  iill,  though  here  it  becomes  necessary  to  tread  cau- 
tiously lest  one  cross  the  danger-line  of  "  fine  writing,"  of 
a  stilted  and  affected  style.  But  these  simple  substitutions 
could  hardly  offend.  Whether  they  shall  be  made  depends 
on  many  considerations,  euphony  for  one.  Until  is  only 
the  longer,  more  leisurely,  less  colloquial  form,  and,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  use  of  it  will  give  the  suggestion  of 
carefulness  on  the  part  of  the  writer  and  the  slight  touch 
of  dignity  and  formality  that  are  frequently  desirable  in 
written  work. 

The  problem  is  to  find  the  happy  mean.  What  consti- 
tutes a  vulgarism  or  a  colloquialism  must  be  learned  by  in- 
ference from  the  speech  and  writing  of  cultured  men  and 
women.  It  may  be  pretty  safely  assumed  that  locutions 
which  are  familiar  to  the  ear  and  which  are  yet  never  seen 
in  reputable  books  stand  outside  of  the  pale  of  ''good 
usage."  Dictionaries  will  often  help  to  decide  the  matter 
for  those  who  do  not  feel  like  trusting  to  their  own  judg- 
ment, though  it  must  be  remembered  that  usage  is  always 
somewhat  in  advance  of  dictionaries.  What  is  a  vulgarism 
at  one  political  campaign  may  be  unimpeachable  English  at 
the  next. 

1.  One  mark  of  a  slipshod  style  can  be  easily  avoided, 
and  that  is  the  use  of  abbreviations  (for  exceptions  see  64) 
and  contractions  of  all  kinds.     Some  writers  fall  into  the 


230  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

habit  of  admitting  into  their  writings  certain  contractions 
that  we  use  freely,  and  without  giving  offence,  in  conver- 
sation— 'tis.  'tisTi't,  ifs,  don't,  etc.  But  there  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  these  contractions,  unless  the  writer  is  reporting 
a  conversation.  "1  do  not"  and  "I  cannot"  do  not 
read  stiffly,  even  in  a  friendly  letter.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
think  that  the  contracted  forms  are  more  natural  or  more 
graceful.  On  the  contrary,  they  attract  attention  as 
mannerisms,  and  give  to  the  composition  the  very  thing 
which  the  writer  thinks  to  avoid — an  air  of  affectation. 
Here  we  may  include  also  such  phrasal  short-cuts  as  "  It's 
no  use  "  for  "  It  is  of  no  use."     Op.  42, 

"With  Cooper  'tis  far  otherwise;  there's  little  finish,  there's  no 
humor.  ...  No  matter  what  old  metal  you  may  use,  if  you 
can  put  enough  of  your  own  powder  behind  it  'twill  reach  the 
mark. — Donald  G.  Mitchell. 

2.  At  the  other  extreme  is  the  false,  grandiloquent  style 
that  seeks  out  the  high-sounding  word  for  mere  wanton 
love  of  it.  The  style  is  supposed  to  be  characteristic  of 
pedants,  but  it  seems  to  be  precisely  those  whom  we  should 
least  think  of  calling  pedants  that  cultivate  it  most,  viz., 
the  writers  for  the  daily  press.  Too  often,  with  these 
writers,  a  woman  who  pawns  her  rings  "  hypothecates  her 
jewels,"  and  the  man  who  is  hanged  for  murder  "suffers 
execution  in  expiation  of  his  crimes."  A  student  has  been 
known  to  write  of  the  "  petrifaction  of  olfactory  sensation," 
meaning  thereby  the  deadening  of  the  sense  of  smell.  Do 
Quincey  has  sometimes  been  charged  with  this  species  of 
bombast,  and  it  may  be  that  he  was  over  fond  of  the  *'  pom- 
posity of  sesquipedalian  verbiage."  But  De  Quincey  never- 
theless weighed  Avell  the  value  of  words,  and  he  has  pro- 
vided both  an  example  and  a  defence  of  his  style  in  tlie 
following  half-humorous  passage  in  his  AutohiograjiMc 
Sketches: 


TONE.  231 

True  it  was  that  my  eye  was  preternatiirally  keen  for  flaws  of 
language,  not  from  pedantic  exaction  of  superfluous  accuracy, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  from  too  conscientious  a  wish  to  escape  the 
mistakes  which  language  not  rigorous  is  apt  to  occasion.  So  far 
from  seeking  to  " pettifogulise " — i.e.,  to  find  evasions  for  any 
purpose  in  a  trickster's  minute  tortuosities  of  construction — ex- 
actly in  the  opposite  direction,  from  mere  excess  of  sincerity, 
most  unwillingly  I  found,  in  almost  everybody's  words,  an  unin- 
tentional opening  left  for  double  interpretations.  Undesigned 
equivocation  prevails  everywhere  ;  and  it  is  not  the  cavilling  hair- 
splitter,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  single-eyed  servant  of  truth, 
that  is  most  likely  to  insist  upon  the  limitation  of  expressions  too 
wide  or  too  vague,  and  upon  the  decisive  election  between  mean- 
ings potentially  double.  Not  in  order  to  resist  or  evade  my 
brother's  directions,  but  for  the  very  opposite  purpose — viz.,  that 
I  might  fulfil  them  to  the  letter — thus  and  no  otherwise  it  hap- 
pened that  I  showed  so  much  scrupulosity  about  the  exact  value 
and  position  of  his  words,  as  finally  to  draw  upon  myself  the 
vexatious  reproach  of  being  habitually  a  "  i^ettifoguliser." 

A  purposely  inilated  style  is  often  used  with  humorous 
effect.  Examine  the  following,  in  which  the  language  is 
satirized  as  "  chaste  and  lofty  diction  ": 

"The  robber  chief,"  pursued  Harold,  warming  to  his  work, 
"joined  his  nefarious  comrades,  and  conversed  witli  them  in  silent 
tones.  His  expression  was  truly  ferocious,  and  I  ought  to  have 
said  that  he  was  armed  to  the  t " 

"  There,  never  mind  his  teeth,"  interrupted  the  curate,  rudely, 
"there's  too  much  jaw  about  you  altogetlier.  Hurry  up  and 
have  done." 

"  I  was  in  a  frightful  funk,"  continued  the  narrator,  warily 
guarding  his  ear  with  his  hand,  "but  just  then  the  drawing- 
room  window  opened,  and  you  and  Aunt  Maria  came  out — I 
mean  emerged.  The  burglars  vanished  silently  into  the  laurels, 
with  horrid  implications  1" 

The  curate  looked  slightly  puzzled.  The  tale  was  well  sus- 
tained, and  cei'tainly  circumstantial.  After  all,  the  boy  might 
have  really  seen  something.  How  was  the  poor  man  to  know — 
though  the  chaste  and  lofty  diction  might  have  supplied  a  hint — • 


232  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

that  the  whole  yarn  was  a  free  adaptation  from  the  last  Penny 
Dreadful  lent  us  by  the  knife-and-boot  boy  ?  —  Kenneth 
Grahame  :   The  Crolden  Age. 

3.  The  unduly  colloquial  tone  is  often  shown  in  the 
employment  of  needless  or  meaningless  emphasis.  Not 
only  should  the  indiscriminate  use  of  such  adjectives  and 
adverbs  as  sjjlendid,  glorious,  mcfully,  infinitely,  be 
avoided,  but  also  the  use  of  such  forms  as  '"'What  in  the 
world  does  he  mean?"  "  How  ever  can  you  think  so?" 
"  Iwas  so  shocked."  (For  this  last,  compare  42.)  Exclama- 
tory forms  likewise  are  usually  in  bad  taste.  They  betray 
too  much  of  the  effusiveness  of  youth.  Plain,  sober  state- 
ments carry  more  conviction  and  give  no  offence. 

EXERCISE. 

Raise  the  tone  by  improving  the  diction  of  the  following 
examples.  Some  of  the  examples  are  not  in  themselves 
bad ;  they  are  included  with  the  others  only  for  the  sake 
of  the  exercise  they  will  afford.  Criticise  also  the  selection 
in  Appendix  B  viii. 

We  started  to  hunt  bait.  ["  Started  to"  is  a  tiresomely  com- 
mon locution  among  novices  in  composition.] 

We  fixed  sleeping-places. 

I  gave  it  to  him  to  look  over, 

I  put  the  book  back  on  the  shelf  where  it  belonged. 

Some  say  to  use  sulphur  to  get  rid  of  this  pest. 

The  rest  of  tlie  time  is  spent  in  repairing  things  about  the  house. 

The  roof  was  covered  with  slabs  having  the  bark  on. 

The  house  inside  was  a  contrast  to  its  outward  appearance. 

In  the  morning  I  got  up  early  and  got  the  breakfast  over. 

The  dishes  were  not  very  fancy,  but  the  food  served  upon  them 
tasted  good. 

The  story  is  about  a  young  couple  who  started  housekeeping 
in  an  old  boat. 


ViGon.  233 

In  conversation  De  Quincey  always  took  the  side  in  an  argu- 
ment that  was  not  commonly  believed. 

Putting  the  best  prunes  on  top  in  straight  rows  is  called  the 
facing,  and  is  done  for  the  looks  when  the  box  is  open  in  the 
retail  store. 

Since  that  time  I  have  decided  it's  no  use  trying  to  oppose  the 
fates,  they  don't  follow  square  methods. 

The  next  morning,  full  of  hope,  we  hastened  to  the  line  again  ; 
but  alas,  there  was  no  sign  of  fish,  so  we  went  back  and  got 
breakfast,  then  we  started  to  fish  with  hook  and  line.  .  .  .  The 
hired  man  said  he  was  thirsty  and  I  said  I  was  too,  so  we  landed 
and  started  up  a  narrow  path  toward  the  house.  .  .  .  Well,  when 
we  got  to  the  house  we  found  a  large,  heavj'-set  woman,  active 
with  tongue  and  limb,  who  told  us  it  was  a  bad  time  to  fish, 
that  we  were  too  near  the  crossing,  that  if  she  had  "knowed 
who  it  wuz"  she  would  have  "showed"  us  a  better  place.  .  .  . 
Oh  my  !  how  she  did  talk;  we  got  a  drink  and  went  away,  leaving 
her  talking  as  fast  as  ever. 

59.  Vigor. — We  have  already  discussed  sentence-length, 
sentence-emphasis,  balance,  conciseness,  etc.,  in  their  rela- 
tion to  effectiveness;  it  remains  now  to  point  out  tlie  vari- 
ous values  of  words  as  contributing  to  the  same  end.  A 
vigorous  style  is  not  necessarily  a  hammering,  emphatic 
style,  but  it  is  a  style  that  makes  definite  impressions,  that 
fixes  ideas.  Instantaneous  communication  of  the  idea, 
vividness,  and  sufficient  freshness  to  keep  alive  the  reader's 
curiosity  are  its  chief  characteristics,  and  these  character- 
istics inhere  largely  in  the  word. 

1.  Short  and  Long  Words. — What  was  said  in  the  last 
section  about  elevating  the  tone  of  a  composition  must  not 
be  construed  to  mean  that  the  short,  homely  words  of  our 
everyday  speech  are  in  tliemselves  unworthy  of  literature. 
Some,  it  is  true,  are  unworthy  in  themselves,  but  the  most 
of  them  are  worthy  just  in  proportion  as  they  harmonize 
with  their  surroundings  and  discharge  the  right  functions. 
The  short  word — and  that  is  most  often  the  Saxon  word, 


'2S4:  WOIWS  AND  PHRASES. 

the  word  inherited  from  our  mother  speech — is  usually 
the  more  vigorous  word.  Herbert  Speucer  ("  Philosopliy 
of  Style '")  explains  this  on  the  2iriuciple  of  economy.  By 
its  very  brevity  the  word  absorbs  less  of  the  hearer's  or 
reader's  mental  power  in  tlie  mere  perception  and  recogni- 
tion of  tlie  symbol,  leaving  more  power  for  the  conception 
of  the  idea  symbolized.  And  in  the  second  place,  the 
short  or  simple  word  is  the  one  associated  witli  the  idea 
earliest  in  life,  when  association  is  stronger;  the  idea, 
therefore,  follows  more  readily  upon  the  word.  Sour.,  to 
use  Mr.  Spencers  illustration,  culls  up  the  quality  more 
quickly  than  acid.  On  the  other  hand,  such  words  as 
concinnity  and pnlchritiule  convey  ideas  very  slowly. 

This  value  of  simple  language  is  all  but  universally 
recognized.  Nothing,  perhaps,  is  more  expressive  than 
slang.  And  genuine  slang  employs  homely  Saxon.  In- 
deed, the  most  vicious,  most  inexcusable  of  all  slang  is  that 
which  is  wantonly  couched  in  a  spurious  and  high-sounding 
phrase.  "  You  may  wager  your  saccharine  existence '"' 
gives  far  more  offence  than  its  vulgar  prototype.  The  un- 
erring instinct  of  the  masses  is  shown  too  in  their  quick- 
ness to  catch  up  and  turn  to  ridicule  the  needlessly  pomp- 
ous phrase.  "Innocuous  desuetude  "  is  an  example  not 
yet  forgotten. 

However,  we  must  qualify  and  distinguish.  Mr.  Spen- 
cer himself  points  out  that  if  the  idea  to  be  conveyed  be 
one  of  largeness  or  weight,  the  long  and  impressive  word  is 
better  adapted  and  therefore  more  forceful.  Stn2)etidous 
is  a  more  powerful  word  than  vast.  Again,  there  may  be 
no  short  or  simple  word  for  the  idea,  because  the  idea  itself 
is  not  simple,  is  not  grasped  in  childhood,  and  came  to  the 
race  only  when  complicated  mental  processes  created  com- 
plicated word-forms.  Or  the  simple  word,  if  it  exists,  may 
not  be  sufficiently  precise  for  the  writer's  meaning.    Words 


VIGOB.  235 

that  have  been  used  for  centuries  by  all  classes  of  people 
have  the  boundaries  of  their  meaning  very  ill-defined. 
Right  is  strong  and  clear,  but  it  lias  not  the  exactness  of 
signification  conveyed  by  honor  or  integrity  or  impartiality 
or  legality  or  rectitude — it  may  include  them  all.  Cut  has 
a  very  different  value  from  carve,  sever,  incise,  dissect. 
Mr.  SjDencer  uses  possess  on  the  very  page  on  which  he 
writes  about  the  greater  force  of  liave,  and  no  one  criticises 
him.  He  writes:  "The  further  superiority  possessed  by 
Saxon  English  in  its  comparative  brevity,  obviously  comes 
under  the  same  generalization."  He  might  have  found 
simpler  words  for  possessed,  brevity,  and  obviously,  but 
they  would  not  have  been  so  precise;  and  what  simpler 
terms  could  he  have  found  for  superiority,  comparative, 
generalization  ? 

Unquestionably,  there  has  been  a  reaction  of  late  years 
in  favor  of  simplicity  of  diction.  Even  the  oratory  of  the 
present  day  is  more  likely  to  be  modelled  upon  the  native 
simplicity  and  strength  of  the  speeches  of  Lincoln  than 
upon  the  academic  stateliness  of  writers  and  speakers  of 
the  Revolutionary  period.  But  praise  of  this  style  often 
outruns  good  judgment.  It  is  frequently  to  be  noticed  that 
the  very  writers  who  expatiate  upon  the  virtues  of  the 
Saxon  tongue,  while  they  may  on  occasion  deliberately  use 
it  with  good  effect,  will  yet  in  unguarded  moments  revert 
to  the  pliraseology  that  is  at  least  native  to  their  pen.  And 
frequently  their  instincts  are  right.  So  much  depends 
upon  the  jjurpose  of  the  composition.  The  orator  who 
would  move  the  masses  will  do  well  to  keep  to  their  sjDeech. 
The  orator  who  speaks  in  a  legislative  hall  may  follow  the 
traditions  of  the  past:  sober,  guarded,  precise  statements 
will  do  more  to  carry  conviction  to  his  hearers.  The  writer 
of  poetry  or  romance  must  be  vivid.  The  writer  on  phi- 
losophy or  science  must  be  precise.     The  writer  who  is  re- 


236  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

lating  the  incidents  of  a  fire  does  not  say  "I  proceeded  to 
the  adjoining  house  to  obtain  assistance,"  but  "I  ran  to 
my  neighbor's  for  help."  The  scientist  speaks  of  a  wheel 
making  "continuous  revolutions,"  and  he  measures  its 
"  friction  "'  and  its  "  velocity."     The  poet  writes: 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel!  Turn  round  and  round 

Without  a  pause,  without  a  sound. 

And  the  poetaster,  obtuse  to  the  difference  between  science 
and  poetry,  and  obtuse  to  the  inner  value  of  words,  ex- 
claims : 

Soon  will  I  thread  the  Golden  Gate 

And  to  thy  side  approximate  ! 

There  is  great  force,  no  doubt,  in  the  homelines?  of  the 
language  with  which  Kipling  describes  the  performance  of 
a  Hindu  magician : 

In  the  centre  of  the  room,  on  the  bare  earth  floor,  stood  a  big, 
deep,  brass  basin,  with  a  pale  blue-green  light  floating  in  the 
centre  like  a  night-light.  Round  that  basin  the  man  on  the  floor 
wriggled  himself  three  times.  How  he  did  it  I  do  not  know. 
I  could  see  the  muscles  ripple  along  his  spine  and  fall  smooth 
again;  but  I  could  not  see  any  other  motion.  The  head  seemed 
the  only  thing  alive  about  him,  except  that  slow  curl  and  uncurl 
of  the  laboring  back-muscles.  Janoo  from  the  bed  was  breathing 
seventy  to  the  minute  ;  Azizun  held  her  hands  before  her  eyes  ; 
and  old  Suddhoo,  fingering  at  the  dirt  that  had  got  into  his 
white  beard,  was  ci-ying  to  himself.  The  horror  of  it  was  that 
tl)e  creeping,  crawly  thing  made  no  sound — only  ^crawled. — 
In  the  House  of  Suddhoo. 

But  there  is  also  force  of  a  kind  in  the  precision  with 
which  the  scientific  expositor  writes : 

My  experiments  on  man  reach  the  number  of  five.  In  two  of 
the  individuals  I  tried  the  effect  of  subcutaneous  injections  of  the 
yellow  fever  germ  culture,  and  in  the  other  three  that  of  intra- 
venous injections.  These  fortunate  trials,  though  few  in  number, 
are  sufficient  to  illuminate  all  the  pathogenic  mechanism,  so  ob- 


Scure  and  so  badly  interpreted  until  now,  of  yellow  fever.  The 
injection  of  the  filtered  culture  in  doses  relatively  small  repro- 
duces in  man  typical  yellow  fever. 

Aucl  there  is  strength  in  the  dignity  with  which  the  his- 
torian writes: 

The  American  people  had  experienced  the  effect  of  a  stifled 
press;  they  had  realized  the  force  of  his  Majesty's  orders  which 
forbade  public  assemblages  and  public  consideration  of  momen- 
tous questions;  they  had  felt  the  sting  of  that  mandate  which 
prevented  them  from  petitioning  for  a  redress  of  grievances.  In 
the  light  of  these  bitter  experiences  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
should  have  unanimously  agreed  that  the  perpetuity  of  this  gov- 
ernment depended  upon  the  most  perfect  freedom  of  speech  and 
of  the  press. 

2.  Generic  and  Specific  Terms. — The  generic  term  be- 
longs to  exposition,  the  specific  term  to  narration  and  de- 
scription. The  generic  term  calls  up  an  indefinite  image, 
the  particular  term  a  definite  image.  Apple-blossoms  gives 
us  a  more  definite  picture — more  definite  at  least  in  its 
outlines — than  orchard-blootn,  and  orchard-bloom  yields  a 
far  livelier  image  than  fioiverage.  Concrete  terms  are  al- 
ways more  vivid  than  abstract  terms.  Even  in  exposition, 
the  specific  and  concrete  term  will  often  help  out  the  mean- 
ing of  the  generic  and  abstract.  Mr.  Spencer  advises  us  to 
avoid  such  sentences  as,  "  In  proportion  as  the  manners, 
customs,  and  amusements  of  a  nation  are  cruel  and  barbar- 
ous, the  regulations  of  their  penal  code  will  be  severe,"  and 
to  substitute,  "  In  proportion  as  men  delight  in  battles, 
bull-fights,  and  combats  of  gladiators,  will  they  punish  by 
hanging,  burning,  and  the  rack."  But  each  form  has  its 
value,  and  if  exposition  be  the  purpose  it  might  be  wise  to 
use  both  forms,  the  one  following  the  other.  The  effective- 
ness of  such  a  method  is  illustrated  in  the  following: 

In  the  nature  of  things  we  may  not  be  presumed  to  have  at- 
tained through  evolutionary  process  that  perfection  in  which  the 


238  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

lower  nature  shall  be  in  complete  subjection  to  the  higher.     The 
ghost  of  our  four-footed  ancestry  will  not  be  laid. 

In  historical  narration,  in  romance,  in  poetry,  indeed 
wherever  vigor  is  especially  desirable,  the  specific  term  is 
to  be  sought.  Do  not  write  "  quite  a  distance"  when  yon 
can  just  as  well  write  "twelve  miles,"  nor  "^  rude  habita- 
tions" when  you  mean  ''adobe  hnts,"  nor  "intoxicating 
liquor  "when  you  mean  "  Kentucky  bourbon."  Let  your 
trees  be  maples  or  sycamores  or  live-oaks,  and  your  birds 
towhees  or  blue-jays  or  vireos.  Give  your  characters  a 
name,  your  incidents  a  date,  and  even  your  sunsets  a  geo- 
graphical location.  Macaulay  understood  well  the  value  of 
this  device.  The  Spectator  is  "  served  up  every  morning 
with  the  bohea  and  rolls."  When  young  men  of  rank  went 
into  the  navy,  "  Mulgrave,  Dorset,  Kochester,  and  many 
others,  left  the  playhouses  and  the  Mall  for  hammocks  and 
salt  pork.  "  Another  man  might  have  written:  "When- 
ever the  Mahrattas  threatened  an  incursion,  the  inhabitants 
fled  for  their  lives."  But  Macaulay  writes:  "Wherever 
their  kettledrums  were  heard,  the  peasant  threw  his  bag  of 
rice  on  his  shoulder,  hid  his  small  savings  in  his  girdle,  and 
fled  with  his  wife  and  children  to  the  mountains  or  the 
jungles — to  the  milder  neighborhood  of  the  hyena  and  the 
tiger." 

Technical  terms  belong  here  also.  They  will  add  to  the 
vividness  and  strength  of  even  purely  literary  work,  pro- 
vided they  are  such  as  will  be  readily  understood.  Fre- 
quently indeed  they  are  self-explanatory,  for  the  common 
artisan,  with  a  lively  sense  of  resemblances,  gives  to  com- 
mon names  a  tropical  and  technical  significance.  The  parts 
of  the  human  body,  for  example,  and  the  various  articles 
of  dress  furnish  the  mechanic  with  a  long  list  of  technical 
terms: — eye,  neck.,  shoulder,  tooth,  hood,  cap,  collar,  jacket, 
apron,  ribbon,  shoe.     The  accurate  use  of  these  terms  in 


VIGOR.  239 

description  is  of  real  literary  value.     Kipling  is  peculiarly 
venturesome  in  this  field : 

The  Colonel  had  a  Waterbury  watch  also,  and  for  guard,  the 
lip-strap  of  a  curb-chain. 

It  was  a  terrible  business  from  beginning  to  end;  but  most  of 
all  when  the  'rickshaw  had  to  squeeze  between  the  wall  and  the 
tonga,  and  she  saw  by  the  lamplight  that  thin,  yellow  hand 
grasping  the  awning-stanchion. 

But  the  Colonel  said  he  [the  Drum-horse]  must  go,  and  he  was 
cast  in  due  form  and  replaced  by  a  washy,  bay  beast,  as  ugly  as  a 
mule,  with  a  ewe-neck,  rat-tail,  and  cow- hocks. 

He  died  a  couple  of  years  ago,  and  gave  me  the  pipe  I  always 
use  now — a  silver  one,  with  queer  beasts  crawling  up  and  down 
the  receiver-bottle  below  the  cup.  Before  that,  I  think,  I  used  a 
big  bamboo  stem  with  a  copper  cup,  a  very  small  one,  and  a 
green  jade  mouthpiece. 

3.  Origmality . — The  writer  who  seeks  to  move  his  read- 
ers powerfully  must  show  them  that  he  is  himself  moved 
powerfully.  He  must  therefore  get  away  from  tlie  second- 
hand inspiration  of  books  and  tradition,  and  go  to  the  orig- 
inal source — life  in  the  concrete  for  objective  literature,  per- 
sonal conviction  of  truth  for  subjective  literature.  In  so 
doing  he  will  get  away  from  conventional  j)hraseology,  which 
has  long  since  lost  its  vitality  and  power.  It  does  not  follow 
tluit  he  will  coin  phrases  or  seek  grotesque  and  unfamiliar 
words.  The  most  familiar  name  is  often  the  least  conven- 
tional. He  who  is  actually  thinking  of  a  horse,  and  not 
of  a  convention  of  the  romancers,  will  say  horse  and  not 
steed.  For  him  the  sun  will  shine,  and  not  the  orb  of  day 
diffuse  its  genial  light.  Men  will  walk,  not  wend  their  way. 
Rivers  will  flow,  not  roll  their  floods  along.  The  man  who 
first  wrote  of  the  murmuring  breeze  and  the  nodding  flowers 
had  actually  heard  and  seen  these  things,  but  we  may  al- 
ways suspect  that  the  man  who  writes  of  tliem  now  is 
merely  co^jying  from  the  first.     Avoid,   then,    hackneyed 


^40  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

phrases — the  hoarse  cries  and  dull  thuds  and  briny  deeps 
and  watery  graves  of  insincere  writers.  The  phrases  have 
the  stamp  of  artificiality  upon  them.  Plain  words,  too  plain 
and  familiar  to  be  artificial,  are  always  to  be  preferred  be- 
fore them. 

But  to  the  writer  who  sees  vividly  will  be  given  unique 
words  too.  To  him  will  come  the  novel  and  picturesque 
yet  fitting  phrases  that  after-writers  will  catch  up  and  make 
conventional  currency  of.  It  is  almost  dangerous  perhaps 
to  give  examples,  even  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  our 
meaning,  since  imitation  can  avail  nothing.  But  there  is 
pleasure  in  meeting  with  this  sort  of  freshness  and  origi- 
nality, and  so  the  student  is  left  to  feel  for  himself  the 
unique  word  or  the  telling  phrase  in  the  following  exam- 
ples : 

The  sea  was  rocking,  and  shaken  with  gathering  wrath.  Upon 
its  surface  sat  mighty  mists,  which  grouped  themselves  into 
arches  and  long  cathedral  aisles. — De  Quincey. 

I  had  felt  that  the  air  was  growing  hotter  and  hotter.  But  no- 
body seemed  to  notice  it  until  the  moon  went  out  and  a  burning 
hot  wind  began  lashing  the  orange-trees  with  a  sound  like  the 
noise  of  the  sea.  ...  We  were  all  huddled  together  close  to  the 
trembling  horses,  with  the  thunder  chattering  overhead,  and  the 
lightning  spurting  like  water  from  a  sluice,  all  ways  at  once. 
There  was  no  danger  of  course,  unless  the  horses  broke  loose.  I 
was  standing  with  my  head  downwind  and  my  hands  over  my 
mouth,  hearing  the  trees  thrashing  each  other.— Kipling. 

Night  is  a  dead,  monotonous  period  under  a  roof ;  but  in  the 
open  workl  it  passes  lightly,  with  its  stars  and  dews  and  perfumes, 
and  the  hours  are  marked  by  changes  in  the  face  of  Nature. 
What  seems  a  kind  of  temporal  death  to  people  choked  between 
walls  and  curtains,  is  only  a  light  and  living  slumber  to  the  man 
who  sleeps  afield. — Stevenson. 

But  the  soul  that  ascends  to  worship  the  great  God  is  plain  and 
true ;  has  no  rose-color,  no  fine  friends,  no  chivah-y,  no  adven- 
tures ;  does  not  want  admiration  ;  dwells  in  the  hour  that  now 


VIGOR.  241 

is,  in  the  earnest  experience  of  the  common  day, — by  reason  of 
the  present  moment  and  the  mere  trifle  having  become  porous  to 
thought  and  bibulous  of  the  sea  of  light.— Emerson. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Kewrite  the  following  in  simpler  language.  To  do 
this  successfully  it  will  be  necessary  not  merely  to  substi- 
tute short  words  for  long,  but  entirely  to  recast  the  form  of 
phrases  and  clauses. 

A  lady  member  of  the  university  faculty,  who  has  been  mak- 
ing statistical  observations  with  a  view  to  contributing  to  the 
study  of  the  trend  of  the  new  womanhood,  has  made  the  inter- 
esting discovery  that  the  prevailing  ambition  among  schoolgirls 
of  to-day  is  to  demonstrate  their  possession  of  that  physical 
courage  which  has  hitherto  been  considered  a  purely  masculine 
prerogative.  The  bright  woman  who  announces  this  discovery, 
founded,  by  the  way,  upon  answers  to  a  series  of  letters  of  in- 
quiry addressed  to  young  girl  students  throughout  the  country, 
is  disposed  to  regard  this  extraordinary  development  as  deplora- 
ble, pointing  to  a  coarsening  of  feminine  nature  and  the  eventual 
loss  of  those  more  delicate  womanly  qualities  which  have  won 
the  chivalry  of  men  in  all  ages. 

Youth  is  delighted  with  applause,  because  it  is  considered  as 
the  earnest  of  some  future  good,  and  because  the  prospect  of  life 
is  far  extended  ;  but  to  me  who  am  now  declining  to  decrepitude, 
there  is  little  to  be  feared  from  the  malevolence  of  men,  and  yet 
less  to  be  hoped  from  their  affection  or  esteem. 

2.  Eewrite  the  following,  substituting  a  Aveightier 
phraseology  wherever  possible  without  running  into  bom- 
bast: 

The  queen  then  wanted  to  get  rid  of  Edmund,  Earl  of  Kent, 
the  poor  king's  youngest  brother.  So  a  report  was  spread  that 
Edward  was  alive,  and  Edmund  was  allowed  to  peep  into  a  dark 
prison  room,  where  he  saw  a  man  who  he  thought  was  his 
brother.  He  tried  to  stir  up  friends  to  set  the  king  free  ;  but 
this  was  called  rebellion,  and  he  was  taken  and  beheaded  at 


'242  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

Winchester   by  a  criminal  condemned  to  die,  for  it  was  such  a 
wicked  sentence  that  nobody  else  could  be  found  to  cari-y  it  out. 

One  of  the  things  that  Benjamin  Franklin  first  found  out 
was  that  lightning  comes  from  the  strange  power  men  call  elec- 
tricity, and  that  there  are  some  substances  which  it  will  run  along, 
so  that  it  can  be  brought  down  to  the  ground  without  doing  any 
mischief — especially  metallic  wires.  He  made  sure  of  it  by  flying 
a  kite,  with  such  an  iron  wire,  up  to  the  clouds  when  there  was 
a  thunder-storm.  The  lightning  was  attracted  by  the  wire,  ran 
right  down  the  wet  string  of  the  kite,  and  only  glanced  off  when 
it  came  to  a  silk  ribbon — because  electricity  will  not  go  along 
silk.  After  this  such  wires  were  fastened  to  buildings,  and  car- 
ried down  into  the  ground,  to  convey  away  the  force  of  the 
lightning. 

3.  Substitute  S]:)ecific  for  generic  terms  in  the  following: 

The  mass  of  mankind  can  never  be  brought  to  worship  an  ab- 
straction. 

Human  character  evermore  publishes  itself. 

Diligence  is  the  price  of  success. 

Ignorance  and  superstition  go  hand  in  hand. 

In  times  of  peril  strong  men  come  to  the  front. 

I  would  not  willingly  say  anything  in  detraction  of  his  charac- 
ter, for  I  have  more  than  once  enjoyed  his  hospitality. 

The  wind  was  pleasant,  the  evening  fine  ;  the  sky,  the  earth, 
and  the  water  beautiful  to  look  upon. 

For  petty  peculations  he  was  sentenced  to  a  long  imprisonment. 

4.  Discuss  tlie  value  of  all  novel  words  and  jilirases  in 
tlie  following: 

Past  moist,  smelly  woods  we  rode,  and  over  long  stretches  of 
beach  where  the  wheels  rolled  slushily  tln'ough  the  sand. 

He  was  a  midget  of  a  wing-steered  Jap  who  shuffled  swift  feet 
out  of  the  room. 

All  the  things  on  the  near  side  of  the  street  were  going  at 
different  paces,  in  two  streams,  overtaking  and  being  overtaken. 
The  tributary  streets  shot  omnibuses  and  carriages,  cabs  and 
carts. -^Mus.  Meynell. 

[Before   a  storm  :]  The   chickens  stood  with  drooping   wings 


BEA  UTY.  243 

under  the  barn  shed,  casting  weather-wise  glances  toward  the 
sky.  .  .  .  Shortly  after  noon  a  single  thunderhead  crept  into 
view  above  the  horizon.  .  .  .  [After  the  storm:]  The  chickens 
walk  gingerly  out  from  under  the  shed  in  search  of  food,  and 
the  birds  flutter  down  to  drink  from  tiny  pools. 

He  was  but  a  pocket  edition  of  a  man,  who  grew  two  inches 
after  he  was  called  ;  but  he  was  so  full  of  the  cure  of  souls  that 
he  usually  scudded  to  it  with  his  coat-tails  quarrelling  behind 
him. — J.  M.  Barrie. 

The  chance  seemed  fallen  into  my  hands  and  without  my  ex- 
pectation. The  place  was  very  privy  ;  the  sun  stood  at  four  of 
the  afternoon,  and  already  the  heaven  was  blackening  overhead. 
A  thin,  cold  wind  whistled  through  the  empty  trees,  tossing  the 
snow  in  spray,  and  the  devil  of  a  hard  night  was  brewing.  In 
the  centre  of  the  road,  and  bare  to  this  desolation,  the  carriage 
stood  forlorn,  the  shafts  half  buried  in  a  drift,  and  the  broken 
wheel  full  circle  to  the  sky.  And  there  lay  the  Bishop,  reclining 
against  his  cushions,  with  his  interrogating  eyes  upon  me. — H.  B. 
Marriott  Watson. 

With  shame  I  confess  it,  I  have  been  bullied  even  by  a  hum- 
ming-bird. This  spring,  as  I  was  cleansing  a  pear-tree  of  its 
lichens,  one  of  these  little  zigzagging  blurs  came  purring  toward 
me,  couching  his  long  bill  like  a  lance,  his  throat  sparkling  with 
angry  fire,  to  warn  me  off  from  a  Missouri-currant  whose  honey 
he  was  sipping.  .  .  .  The  bobolinks  are  generally  chance  visitors, 
tinkling  through  the  garden  in  blossoming-time,  but  this  year, 
owing  to  the  long  rains  early  in  the  season,  their  favorite  mead- 
ows were  flooded,  and  they  were  driven  to  the  upland.  So  I  had 
a  pair  of  them  domiciled  in  my  grass-field.  The  male  used  to 
perch  in  an  apple-tree,  then  in  full  l)loom,  and,  while  I  stood  per- 
fectly still  close  by,  he  would  circle  away,  quivering  round  the 
entire  field  of  five  acres,  with  no  break  in  his  song,  and  settle 
down  again  among  the  blossoms,  to  be  hurried  away  almost  im- 
mediately by  a  new  rapture  of  music. — Lowell. 

60.  Beauty. ^ — Beauty  is  but  the  outward  evidence  of 
inward  perfection.  It  is  another  name  for  symmetry.  It 
means. completeness  of  the  whole  and  perfect  adaptation 
of  the   parts.      When,  in  composition,    one   has   secured 


244  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

clearness  and  strength,  he  has  secured  also  the  main  ele- 
ments of  beauty.  The  attempt  to  go  further  is  fraught 
with  great  risk,  and  the  few  suggestions  offered  here  can 
be  only  very  general  in  their  nature. 

1.  Variety. — In  section  57  were  discussed  the  principles 
of  repetition.  It  remains  to  examine  the  cases  in  which 
variation  is  more  desirable  than  repetition.  In  description 
and  narration,  and  in  all  work  whose  chief  aim  is  to  please, 
the  repetition  of  a  presentive  word,  not  being  needed  for 
precision's  sake,  will  strike  the  ear  unpleasantly.  In  such 
cases  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  writer  to  seek  out  sym- 
bolic substitutes,  as  j)ronouns,  or  else  synonyms  and  cir- 
cumlocutions. We  are  told  that  Comte  took  pains  "  never 
to  reproduce  any  word,  except  the  auxiliary  monosyllables, 
in  two  consecutive  sentences."  How  absurd  it  would  be 
to  adhere  always  to  such  a  rule,  we  have  already  seen.  But 
one  or  two  examples  will  easily  show  that  there  are  times 
when  to  observe  it  will  be  wise. 

One  who  has  never  lived  near  a  desert  can  little  realize  how 
fascinating  it  is.  Before  my  visit  to  Phcenix,  I  had  always 
looked  upon  a  desert  as  one  of  the  most  dreary  places  on  earth. 
But  I  did  not  take  many  trips  on  the  sandy  wastes  before  I 
clianged  my  mind.  It  might  be  that  the  desert  I  visited  was 
more  attractive  than  most,  but  it  is  true  it  was  attractive.  Run- 
ning across  the  desert  in  all  directions  were  well  trodden  roads 
made  by  the  Mexican  wood-gatherers.  These  drives  were  not 
bordered  by  tall  forest  trees  which  add  beauty  to  a  country,  but 
were  bordered  by  cacti  and  mesquite  which  make  the  desert  so 
picturesque.  In  the  spring  the  desert  looks  like  a  beautiful 
flower-garden. 

It  is  evident  that  the  word  "  desert "  is  repeated  here,  not 
from  any  necessity,  but  from  mere  lack  of  ingenuity.  Even 
in  the  one  place  where  a  synonym  is  employed,  the  lack  of 
ingenuity  is  painfully  felt.      For   an   example  of   skilful 


BE  A  UTT.  245 

avoidance  of  repetition,  turn  to  Appendix  C  xxii,  para- 
graphs 37  and  38,  and  mark  the  different  words  that 
Macaulay  uses  to  describe  the  mental  state  of  the  Moslem 
during  the  great  Mohammedan  festival.  And  mark  in 
paragraph  17  of  the  same  selection  the  different  words 
used  to  convey  the  general  idea  of  magnificence. 

2.  Figiires  of  Sjyeech. — The  chief  function  of  the  figure 
of,  speech  should  be  to  add  clearness,  and  its  great  value 
for  illustrating  cannot  be  questioned.  Nevertheless,  it  is  of 
the  essence  of  figures  of  speech— even  of  those  founded  on 
similarity — that  they  illustrate  one  thing  hj something  else. 
They  can  therefore  never  have  the  scientific  value  of  ex- 
actness; for  while  the  not-familiar  may  be  approached 
through  the  familiar,  it  cannot  be  perfectly  realized  thus. 
It  follows  that  figures,  useful  as  they  are  and  should  be, 
still  fall  into  the  category  of  the  ornaments  of  composition. 
Macaulay  writes:  "During  the  gloomy  and  disastrous 
centuries  which  followed  the  downfall  of  the  Koman  Em- 
pire Italy  had  preserved,  in  a  far  greater  degree  than  any 
other  part  of  western  Europe,  the  traces  of  ancient  civili- 
zation. The  night  which  descended  upon  her  was  the 
night  of  an  Arctic  summer:  the  dawn  began  to  reappear 
before  the  last  reflection  of  the  preceding  sunset  had  faded 
from  the  horizon."  The  statement  of  fact  in  the  first  place 
is  so  clear  that  the  metaphor  can  hardly  make  it  clearer; 
but  the  metaphor  is  wonderfully  apt„and  the  mind,  relieved 
for  a  moment  of  strenuous  thinking,  is  j^leasantly  occupied 
with  picturing.  There  is  pleasure  in  contemplating  the 
new  picture,  and  there  is  pleasure  in  marking  how  like  it 
is  to  the  first.  Macaulay  is  exercising  his  right  to  adorn, 
and  exercising  it  so  naturally  that  the  result  is  an  example 
of  consummate  art.  So  when  Stevenson  writes  of  children 
running  about  on  shipboard  "thick  as  thieves  at  a  fair," 
he  is  indulging  in  a  bit  of  deliberate  ornamentation.     The 


246  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

situation  is  made  no  clearer,  but  the  quaintness  of  the 
simile  tickles  our  fancy  and  we  are  grateful  to  him  for 
it. 

Figures  may  be  used,  then,  not  alone  for  clearness  or 
force,  but  sometimes  for  their  beauty.  They  contribute 
much  to  the  attractiveness  of  one's  style.  We  cannot  fail 
to  note  the  heightening  of  interest  and  pleasure  when 
Lowell  writes  of  the  crow's  "  deaconlike  demeanor  and 
garb,"  or  when  Carlyle  pictures,  from  above  a  city  at  night, 
the  work  that  "goes  on  under  that  smoke-counterpane." 
But  the  purely  literary  figure,  consciously  wrought  out,  is 
after  all  not  the  best.  The  long  simile,  familiar  to  ei)ic  po- 
etry since  the  days  of  Homer,  tries  sorely  the  patience  of  our 
age.  It  is  the  unliterary,  the  fresh,  si^ontaneous  figure, 
born  of  the  moment  and  the  situation,  that  we  like  best — 
the  sort  of  figure  that  comes  to  one  who  sees  vividly  and 
knows  what  he  sees,  whether  he  be  learned  or  unlearned. 
The  farmer  who  complains  of  his  "  crabbed  soil,"  the  car- 
penter who  tries  to  "  shore  up  his  credit,"  the  old  salmon- 
fisher  who  watches  the  frolics  of  the  young  men  "  gay  as 
gulls  in  a  fish-wash,"  the  trooper  who  speaks  of  his  seno- 
rita's  eyes  ''  burrowing  him  like  a  44  Colt's,"  give  us  figura- 
tive language  of  the  most  genuine  kind.  "^  If  it  were  only 
for  a  vocabulary,  the  scholar  Avould  be  covetous  of  action," 
writes  P^merson.  "  Life  is  our  dictionary.  Years  are  well 
spent  in  country  labors;  in  town;  in  the  insighcinto  trades 
and  manufactures;  in  frank  intercourse  with  many  men 
and  women;  in  science;  in  art;  to  the  one  end  of  master- 
ing in  all  their  facts  a  language  by  which  to  illustrate  and 
embody  our  perceptions.  I  learn  immediately  from  any 
speaker  how  much  he  has  already  lived,  through  the  pov- 
erty or  the  splendor  of  his  speech.  Life  lies  behind  us  as 
the  quarry  from  whence  we  get  tiles  and  copestones  for  the 
masonry  of  to-day.     This  is  the  way  to  learn  grammar. 


BEA  UTT.  24Y 

Colleges  and  books  only  copy  the  language  which  the  field 
and  the  work-yard  made." 

Thus,  and  thus  alone  perhaps,  will  one  come  into  com- 
mand of  figurative  language.  Certainly  the  study  of  clas- 
sified figures  in  a  text-book  will  avail  little.  But  since 
there  are  a  few  mechanical  figures  which  may  be  employed 
deliberately,  and  since  an  accurate  knowledge  of  all  is  use- 
ful for  critical  purposes,  we  may  pauce  here  to  give  them 
more  minute  consideration. 

Figure  of  speech  is  a  wide  term,  covering  almost  every 
form  known  to  language  of  deviation  from  plain  statement 
of  facts.  The  slightest  parajjlirase,  the  least  departure 
from  normal  sentence  order,  the  most  trivial  false  implica- 
tion, are  all  figures  of  speech.  We  can  scarcely  write  a  sen- 
tence without  using  a  trope  of  some  kind,  that  is,  a  word 
which  has  been  transferred  from  its  original  application 
and  which  was  once  felt  to  be  figurative;  as  when  we  say: 
"  He  is  a  bright  boy,"  "  She  has  a  sharp  tongue,"  "  It  is  a 
sat? book."  It  follows  that  one  style  differs  from  another  not 
in  possessing  or  lacking  figures,  but  only  in  degree  of  fig- 
urativeness. 

We  may  classify  the  important  rlietorical  figures  thus: 

(1)   Figures  of  sentence  structure: 

Inversion.      •'  Thine  be  the  glory." 

Climax,  or  the  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  or  state- 
ments in  the  order  of  ascending  power.  "Why,  sir,  he 
has  asked  ivhen,  and  hoiu,  and  why  New  England  votes 
were  found  going  for  measures  favorable  to  the  West." 

These  figures  can  be  employed  at  will,  though  they  must 
always  be  employed  with  judgment.  They  are  used  to  se- 
cure both  force  and  variety,  and  are  especially  adapted  to 
oratory.  The  discussion  of  them  will  be  found  in  section 
48,  where  it  more  properly  belongs.  For  Balance,  which 
may  also  be  accounted  a  figure,  see  49. 


248  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

(2)   Figures  involving  modification  of  statement: 

Exclamation.,  or  tlie  substitution  of  an  exclamatory  for  a 
declarative  form  of  utterance,  "  How  sweet  the  air  of 
eve!  "     For  cautions,  see  58,  3. 

Interrogation,  or  the  use  of  an  interrogative  form  where 
no  real  question  is  intended  or  Avhere  the  answer  is  obvious, 
in  order  to  nuike  the  statement  more  imjiressive — some- 
times called  rlictorical  question.    "'  Hath  not  a  Jew  eyes  ? '' 

Hyperbole.,  or  purposely  exaggerated  statement.  "  She 
was  drowned  in  tears."'  ''  My  dust  would  hear  her  and 
beat,  had  I  lain  for  a  century  dead." 

Irony,  or  the  use  of  words  whose  literal  meaning  is  the 
exact  opposite  of  the  meaning  intended.  "  It  was  very 
kind  of  you  to  remind  me  of  my  humiliation  ! '' 

These  figures  also  come  within  the  range  of  all  writers 
and  may  be  employed  deliberately.  Several  cautions  are  to 
be  observed.  In  hyperbole  the  exaggeration  should  be  so 
great  that  it  cannot  be  mistaken  for  fact.  On  the  other 
hand,  exaggeration  may  overshoot  its  mark  by  being  ridic- 
ulously gross.  Irony  is  a  powerful  weapon,  keen-edged  for 
attack,  strong  for  defence.  With  it  one  may  pass  the  most 
severe  censure,  and  yet  plead  innocent  of  malicious  intent, 
since  the  language  is  the  language  of  praise.  But  irony  is 
a  treacherous  weapon  too,  and  he  who  uses  it  needs  to  be 
alive  to  the  fact  that  his  blow  may  fall  harmless,  or  even, 
to  liis  chagrin,  come  back  upon  his  OAvn  head.  For  some 
will  always  be  fo'nnd  who  fail  to  detect  the  ironical  intent. 
The  following  paragriiph  is  taken  from  a  series  of  articles 
that  were  widely  j)ublished  during  the  war  with  Spain: 

Men  of  the  Seventh,  intelligence,  culture,  conscience,  and  en- 
lightened love  of  country  salute  you  !  Adliere  to  your  soldierly 
resolution  and  stay  with  us.  "While  you  are  here  the  city  is  safe 
and  the  mob,  ever  passionate  and  bestial,  can  be  defied.  Let  your 
war-cry  be  henceforward,  as  now,  not  the  brutal  and  brainless 


BEA  UTT.  24:9 

yell  of  "  Cuba  Libre  !  "  but  the  manly  shibboleth,  "  God  Bless  Our 
Home." 

The  writer's  intention  would  seem  to  be  perfectly  clear, 
and  yet  the  indignant  protests  which  his  articles  called 
forth  from  well-meaning  patriots  proves  that  the  number 
of  people  who  are  impervious  to  irony  is  very  large  indeed. 

(3)  Figures  affecting  the  object  of  thought: 

Vision,  in  which  the  remote  in  time  or  place  is  conceived 
of  as  present.  "  The  burden  of  Egypt.  Behold,  the  Lord 
rideth  upon  a  swift  cloud,  and  cometh  unto  Egypt." 

Apostrophe,  or  direct  address  when  the  object  addressed 
either  is  not  present  or  is  inanimate.  "  0  heat,  dry  up  my 
brains  !  " 

Metonymy ^  by  which  a  part,  or  attribute,  or  accompani- 
ment, or  example  of  an  object  is  made  to  stand  for  the 
object  itself.  "  He  is  mounted  on  liis  wheel."'  "  Strike — 
for  your  altars  and  your  fires  I  "'  "  A  Daniel  come  to  judg- 
ment !  "  '■  It  is  the  poisoned  cup."  "  He  was  born  to  the 
purple." 

Metaphor,  or  the  replacement  of  the  real  object  of  thought 
by  something  to  which  it  bears  a  fancied  resemblance. 
"This  news  will  prove  a  bitter  draught."  "  Hjs  tongue 
dropped  manna."  "Another  white  blanket  has  been 
spread  upon  the  glen  since  I  looked  out  last  night." 

Personification,  or  the  conception  of  an  inanimate  object 
or  an  abstraction  as  animate.  "  Love's  arms  were  wreathed 
about  the  neck  of  Hope." 

By  the  figures  Vision  and  Apostrophe  the  object  of 
thought  is  pictured  in  a  relation  to  the  writer  or  speaker 
which  it  does  not  really  sustain.  Vision  commonly  em- 
ploys the  historical  present  tense;  see  33,  2.  Apostrophe 
involves  vision,  and  also,  when  tlie  object  addressed  is  in- 
animate, a  kind  of  personification,  which  in  turn  is  a  kind 
of  metaphor. 


250  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

Metonymy,  Metaplior,  and  Personification  picture  the 
object  with  some  change  in  form  or  essential  cliaracter. 
Metaphor  is  the  most  common  of  all  figures;  so  that  a 
hiohly  figurative  style  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  meta- 
phorical style.  Metaphor  underlies  the  simplest  trope;  it 
is  found  only  as  a  suggestion  in  such  phrases  as,  ^'  He 
reined  in  his  passion,"  '"  The  proceedings  were  blocked"  ; 
or  it  may  be  highly  elaborated  and  become  the  basis  of  a 
long  work  of  literary  art,  when  it  is  called  Allegory,  as  in 
Bunyan's  ''Pilgrim's  Progress"'  or  Spenser's  ''Faerie 
Queene."  It  is  the  product  of  a  lively  imagination,  and  is 
an  almost  inseparable  part  of  the  language  of  emotion. 
That  it  does  not  proceed  from  the  intellect  working  calmly 
in  the  interest  of  pure  science  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
while  it  contributes  to  vividness  it  does  not  contribute  to 
clearness.  It  may  be  founded  upon  likeness,  but  it  involves 
confusion.  It  assumes  the  identity  of  things  that  are  not 
identical.  Indeed,  Mr.  Euskin  has  pointed  out  ("Modern 
Painters,"  Vol.  Ill)  that  several  of  the  greatest  poets,  even, 
Homer  and  Dante,  for  example,  maintain  with  all  their 
emotional  power  such  clearness  of  vision  that  they  rarely 
or  never -admit  this  confusion.  Metaphor  is  scarcely  to  be 
found  in  their  works.  This  must  not  of  course  be  taken  as 
an  argument  against  the  high  value  of  metaphor  in  litera- 
ture- it  only  serves  to  indicate  one  cast  of  mind.  These 
men  see  the  likeness  between  two  objects  readily  enough, 
otherwise  they  would  not  be  poets;  only  they  never  con- 
found the  one  object  with  the  other.  They  do  not  say  that 
the  one  object  is  the  other,  nor  assume  that  it  is, — they  keep 
the  objects  apart  and  content  themselves  with  saying  that 
one  is  like  the  other.  This  is  simple  comparison.  When  the 
comparison  is  between  objects  essentially  unlike,  or  unlike 
in  most  particulars,  or  belonging  to  different  classes,  it  is 
called  a  Simile,  and  this  is  often  classed  with  figures  of 


BEA  UTT.  251 

speech.  But  a  logical  distinction  between  simple  compar- 
ison and  simile  is  dilficult  to  make.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
simile,  while  serving  a  purjDOse  much  like  the  metaphor,  is 
not  in  itself  a  true  figure  of  speech  at  all.  "Blood  ran  like 
water,"  "  With  face  white  as  chalk,"  "^  As  patient  as  the 
female  dove,"  may  all  be  literally  true, — ^no  less  so  than 
the  simple  comparison,  "He  is  as  eloquent  as  Burke." 
The  simile  becomes  figurative  only  so  far  as  it  involves  hy- 
perbole, or  suggests  personification,  or  merges  into  meta- 
phor. 

Several  things,  by  way  of  caution,  should  be  added 
here.  Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  has  already  been 
suggested  in  the  advice  not  to  seek  figures,  but  to  let  them 
come  to  us,  if  they  will,  fresh  from  action  and  experience, 
from  the  "  dictionary  of  life."  For  conventional  and  hack- 
neyed figures  have  no  longer  either  beauty  or  force,  and 
they  will  not  be  used  by  one  who  is  concerned  about  his 
reputation  for  sincerity.  Such  are  the  old,  old  figures  of 
sowing  and  reaping,  of  fields  of  learning,  of  shackles  of  ig- 
norance, of  the  ship  of  state,  and  of  the  sea  of  life.  Only 
he  to  whom  these  things  come  directly  as  they  came  to  the 
first  man,  has  a  right  to  use  them.  A  scrutiny  of  many 
pages  of  mountain-description  in  Euskin  reveals  not  a 
single  "snow-capped  peak,"  whereas  the  scenic  railway 
folder  is  poor  indeed  that  does  not  boast  half  a  dozen. 
And  we  know  too  well  the  class  of  fiction  and  poetry  in 
which  the  dewdrops  are  always  pearly,  and  the  grass  always 
velvet.  Sometimes  the  heroine's  eyes  are  velvet,  too, 
though  it  is  not  easy  to  follow  the  similitude. 

Again,  figures  must  not  be  thrust  unceremoniously  into 
a  matter-of-fact  composition.  ''  It  was  probably  thirty 
years,"  writes  one,  discussing  the  origin  of  the  fruit  industry 
in  a  certain  locality,  "  before  men  perceived  the  beckoning 
hand  of  Finance  calling  them  to  the  field,  but  when  they 


252  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

did  see  it,  the  orchards  increased  with  aston.sning  ra- 
pidity.'' Finance  is  scarcely  a  good  subject  for  personi- 
fication, though  a  modern  sculptor  might  make  her  into  a 
goddess,  and  a  modern  orator  might  apostrophize  her  in 
impassioned  words.  But  it  is  clear  that  our  writer  has 
not  the  transfiguring  power,  for  he  continues  in  a  strain  in 
Avhich  figurative  and  literal  language  jostle  each  other 
rudely:  "  But  to  gain  this  foothold  the  orchardist  has  not 
trodden  a  path  of  roses.  Bather  has  he  tramped  the  weary 
mountain  road.  The  young  trees  require  incessant  atten- 
tion." A  sense  of  humor  is  the  efficient  safeguard  against 
such  errors.  A  sense  of  humor,  too,  should  prevent  ns 
from  using  figures  that  are  not  elevating,  as  when  an  old 
poet  speaks  of  his  mistress's  eyes  as  sloes,  or  likens  a 
maiden's  hair  to  golden  wire. 

Figures  should  not  be   mixed.     Lowell  marred  one  of 
his  finest  poems  with  these  concluding  lines: 

Lo,  before  ns  gleam  her  camp-fires  !  we  ourselves  must  Pil- 
grims be, 

Launch  our  Mayflower,  and  steer  boldly  through  the  desperate 
winter  sea, 

Nor  attempt  the  Future's  portal  with  the  Past's  blood-rusted 
key. 

Great  writers  have  mixed  figures,  from  Pindar  to  Brown- 
ing. There  is  a  wide  difference  indeed  between  the  poetic 
audacities  of  Pindar  and  the  absurdities  of  the  verse- 
monger, for  whom  "  Pride  bursts  beneath  the  fiery  lash  of 
Scorn,"  but  the  range  and  variety  of  the  instances  show 
how  hard  the  fault  is  to  escape.  Most  interesting  is  it  to 
see  a  writer  catcli  himself  failing  and  to  mark  his  struggles 
to  recover.  Now  and  then  one  succeeds,  as  Mr.  Le  Gal- 
lienne  does  in  the  following  by  grace  of  sheer  frankness : 

Nothing  can  be  straighter  and  smoother  than  a  Surrey  road— 
when  it  is  on  the  king's  business  ;  then  it  is  a  high-road  and  be- 


BEAUTY.  253 

haves  accordingly  :  but  a  Surrey  by-road  is  the  most  whimsical 
compauion  in  the  'world.  It  is  like  a  sheep-dog,  always  running 
backwards  and  forwards,  poking  into  the  most  out-of-the-way 
corners,  now  climbing  at  a  run  some  steep  hummock  of  the 
down,  and  now  leisurely  going  miles  about  to  escape  an  ant-hill ; 
and  all  the  time  (here,  by  the  way,  ends  the  sheep-dog)  it  is 
stopping  to  gossip  with  rillets  vagabond  as  itself,  or  loitering  to 
bedeck  itself  with  flowers.  —  The  Quest  of  the  Golden  Girl. 

There  is  no  need  to  pursue  this  matter  further.  We 
have  said  that  the  study  of  the  more  important  figures 
belongs  to  the  scientific,  analytical  study  of  literature,  and 
can  have  but  a  very  remote  bearing  upon  practical  compo- 
sition. Saying  this  is  only  an  admission  of  the  unme- 
chanical  nature  of  these  figures — it  is  not  saying  anything 
in  detraction  of  them.  Indeed,  the  power  to  use  figures 
effectively,  or  rather  the  necessity  that  seems  to  lie  upon 
some  minds  to  speak  in  figures,  is  one  of  the  marks  of 
greatness.  It  is  the  power  to  detect  relations.  It  involves 
association,  by  the  wealth  of  which  the  richness  of  a  liter- 
ary style  is  largely  gauged.  It  is  the  chief  source  of  the 
growth  of  language  itself. 

3.  Ornament. — The  seeking  of  ornament  for  ornament's 
sake  is  attended  with  great  danger.  But  one  of  the  legiti- 
mate aims  of  art  is  to  i)lease,  and  so  ornament  may  be 
legitimately  sought.  But  it  sliould  never  be  magnified 
into  the  chief  aim,  obscuring  more  rational  aims.  The 
moment  we  suspect  any  one  of  writing  "for  effect,"  that 
moment  he  loses  his  power  over  us.  A  curious  instance  of 
this  false  conception  of  composition  was  found  in  the 
essay  of  a  young  aspirant  for  applause  wdio  wrote,  "The 
tremulous  fingers  of  the  executioner  feel  the  edge  of  the 
hungry  axe  which  is  so  soon  to  cut  off  the  head  and  hopes 
of  the  doomed  man,"  and  then,  not  wholly  satisfied  with 
the  performance,  asked  in  a  marginal  note,  "  Would  it  be 
well  to  add /orever .?  "     Another,  growing  eloquent  in  an 


254  WOMBS  AND  PHRASES. 

attack  upon  the  "rum-fiend"  (he  had  probably  never 
heard,  outside  of  books,  of  tlie  particular  distillation 
known  as  rum),  pictures  it  as  a  "giant  foe,  engulfing  the 
races  of  men  beneath  its  billows  of  liquid  death."  Both  ol 
these  writers  were  thinking  too  much  of  how  their  sen- 
tences would  sound,  too  little  of  what  they  would  mean. 
The  only  cure  for  such  a  fault  lies  in  the  radical  reforma- 
tion of  the  writer's  ideas  of  composition  and  his  steadfast 
abjuring,  for  a  time  at  least,  of  all  intentional  adornment. 
There  should  not  be  an  excess  of  ornament.  It  is  a 
truism  of  rhetoric  that  the  adjective  is  the  enemy  of  the 
substantive.  So  clothes  hide  the  man.  But  it  is  only 
when  the  clothes  become  so  conspicuous  as  to  cause  us  to 
overlook  the  man  that  we  rise  in  protest  against  the 
clothes.  The  adjective  is  a  good  thing,  even  when  it  is 
chiefly  an  ornamental  thing.  What  would  the  writings  of 
such  men  as  Kuskin  and  Swinburne  be  without  it  ?  But  if 
every  substantive  has  an  adjective,  or  two,  or  three,  the 
adjective  very  evidently  becomes  an  element  of  weakness, 
and  not  of  strength  or  beauty.  So  with  all  pure  orna- 
ment. The  following  description  (quoted  in  Earle's 
"  English  Prose")  illustrates  the  danger: 

The  silver  rays  touched  with  seeming  tenderness  the  dark  hair 
rolled  high  upon  the  little  head,  and  fell  across  the  white  neck, 
half  concealed  by  a  fleecy  drapery  gathered  together  carelessly, 
and  held  by  one  slender  hand  in  a  long  loose  glove  ;  they  struck 
cool  and  sharp  on  the  sweeping  lines  of  the  dress,  accentuating 
each  fold  of  the  silken  texture,  and  threw  into  bold  relief  the 
soft  pallor  of  the  delicately  rounded  face,  lingering  longest  where 
the  dark  brows  made  a  mystery  of  the  eyes,  and  kissing  the 
curved  lips  that  now  were  set  and  defiant ;  illuminating  and  de- 
fining each  gracious  curve  and  outline  of  the  graceful  form, 
with  the  same  ethereal  brilliancy  that  transformed  the  trickling 
fountain  into  an  elixir  of  life  and  awakened  the  leaf-god  Nar- 
cissus into  perennial  youth  fulness. 


BEAUTY.  255 

Truth  may  never  be  sacrificed.  "The  setting  Sun  lin- 
gers with  a  warm  caressing  touch  on  Earth  and  Sea  and 
Sky,  as  if  loath  to  take  leave  of  its  comj^anions  of  the  day," 
writes  one.  But  does  the  sun  linger,  or  even  seem  to 
linger?  Is  its  touch,  when  setting,  noticeable  for  warmth  ? 
Does  any  one  even  fancy  to-day  that  it  leaves  earth  and  sea 
and  sky  ?  And  are  we  to  imagine  that  it  will  have  com- 
panions of  the  night  ?  Evidently,  in  the  writer's  mind 
there  was  a  most  unaccountable  dissociation  of  the  sun  and 
the  day.  Presumably,  this  leave-taking  should  all  be 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  sun — the  sun  is  the  sub- 
ject and  the  actor  ;  but  the  writer  failed  to  rise  above  his 
own  narrow  view,  and  so  there  appears  to  be  a  sacrifice  of 
truth.  Mr.  Ruskin,  in  his  famous  chapter  on  the  "  Pa- 
thetic Fallacy '' already  referred  to  ("  Modern  Painters," 
Vol.  Ill),  has  shown  how,  under  stress  of  strong  emotion, 
we  give  things  attributes  that  do  not  really  belong  to  tliem, 
we  see  things  other  than  as  they  are.  The  fallacy  lies  be- 
hind all  varieties  of  the  figure  of  personification.  But 
when  the  emotion  really  creates  the  illusion,  there  is  no 
sacrifice  of  truth.  The  cold  fact  may  be  forgotten,  but  the 
very  weakness  of  the  human  nature  that  forgets  this  fact 
is  for  a  time  a  higher  fact,  which  it  would  be  simple  folly 
to  ignore.  Sincerity,  fidelity  to  one's  feelings,  is  the 
writer's  law  and  the  critic's  test.  Given  this  sincerity,  ac- 
cording as  the  feelings  are  deep  and  sane — sane  still  in  their 
blindness  to  fact — will  the  art  be  high.  When  language 
outruns  imagination,  or  when  imagination  transcends 
sanity,  the  art  fails. 

There  is  much  more  that  might  be  said  upon  this  sub- 
ject, but  satisfactory  working  rules  cannot  be  deduced,  and 
so  we  must  be  content  to  let  the  matter  rest.  Be  it  re- 
membered always  that  the  chaster  the  ornament,  the  more 
it  will  adorn,  for  that  adorns  most  which  is  not  itself  seen. 


256  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

In  no  case  should  the  writer  seek  far  for  fine  array.  It 
cannot  be  borrowed.  It  may  not  be  wrought  AA'ith  much 
labor.  If  it  grow  not  naturally  beneath  his  touch,  it  must 
be  resolutely  forsworn.  For,  after  all,  the  essence  of  all 
strength  and  beauty  of  style  lies  in  the  individuality,  the 
personality,  behind  it.    Once  more,  "the  style  is  the  man." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Eemove  unpleasant  repetitions  in  the  following: 

Under  such  conditions  was  transportation  carried  on  during 
the  early  days  of  Colorado  and  in  some  places  as  late  as  1889. 
Freighting  was  at  that  time  the  most  reliable  and  sj'stematic 
mode  of  transportation.  The  teamsters  who  carried  on  this  mode 
of  transportation  were  called  freighters.  These  freighters  bar- 
gained with  merchants  to  carry  shipments  of  freight  between 
given  places. 

Criticise  and  improve  also  passages  that  illustrate  this 
same  fault  in  Appendix  B  vi  and  ix. 

Place  the  words  maze,  labyrintli,  debris,  heii'ilderment, 
jirofusion,  perplexities,  hopeless,  confusing,  overwhelm,  ex- 
tricate, disentangle,  disengage  properly  in  the  following 
passage,  noting  the  pleasing  effect  of  the  variety: 

This  is  about  the  condition  of  men's  minds  on  the  financial 
question.  They  are  riding  on  an  avalanche  of  words,  and  every 
"if"  and  "  and  "  only  adds  momentum  to  the  mass.     If  some  of 

tliem  do  not  get before  next  November,  I  am  afraid  they 

will  be  in  the .     That   which  distinguishes   man  from 

the  lower  animals  is  his  ability  to  reason,  and  this  is  a  time  when 
we  need  to  reason  and  reason  well.     We  started  right,  and  we 

may  continue  right  if  we  can  once ourselves  from  this 

of .     Touch  a  man's  pocket  and  you  touch  his  heart, 

and  when  a  man's  heart  is  touched  he  becomes  eloquent.  This 
question  has  touched  the  hearts  and  pockets  of  many  men,  and 

eloquence  has  been   scattered  in   such  that  we  have  been 

led  on  and  on  into  this of  language  until  we  stand  in  almost 

.     The  best  way  to ourselves  is  to  go  back  home, 

and  here  in  our  own  little  valley  consider  the  situation. 


BEA  UTY.  257 

2.   Point  out  and  name  the  figures  of  speech: 

Many  years  have  elapsed  since  Providence  flung  Mr.  Watts  out 
of  the  Auld  Licht  kirk.  Mr.  Watts  was  a  probationer  who  was 
tried  before  Mr.  Dishart,  and,  though  not  so  young  as  might  have 
been  wished,  he  found  favor  in  many  eyes.  "  Sluggard  in  the 
laft,  awake  !  "  he  cried  to  Bell  Whamond,  who  had  forgotten  her- 
self, and  it  was  felt  that  there  must  be  good  stuff  in  him,  A 
breeze  from  heaven  exposed  him  on  Communion  Sabbath.  .  .  . 

Mr.  Watts  was  conducting  'the  service  on  the  commonty.  It 
was  a  fine,  still  summer  evening,  and  loud  above  the  whisper  of 
the  burn  from  which  the  common  climbs,  and  the  labored  "  pechs" 
of  the  listeners,  rose  the  preacher's  voice.  The  Auld  Lichts  in 
their  rusty  blacks — they  must  have  been  a  more  artistic  sight  in 
the  olden  days  of  blue  bonnets  and  knee-breeches — nodded  their 
heads  in  sharp  approval  ;■  for  though  they  could  swoop  down  on 
a  heretic  like  an  eagle  on  carrion,  they  scented  no  pi'ey.  Even 
Lang  Tammas  thought  that  all  was  fair  and  above-board.  Sud- 
denly a  rush  of  wind  tore  up  the  common,  and  ran  straight  at 
the  pulpit.  It  formed  in  a  sieve,  and  passed  over  the  heads  of 
the  congregation,  who  felt  it  as  a  fan,  and  looked  up  in  awe. 
Lang  Tammas,  feeling  himself  all  at  once  grow  clammy,  distinctly 
heard  the  leaves  of  the  pulpit  Bible  shiver.  Mr.  Watts's  hands, 
outstretched  to  prevent  a  catastrophe,  were  blown  against  his 
side,  and  then  some  twenty  sheets  of  closely  written  paper  floated 
into  the  air.  There  was  a  horrible,  dead  silence.  The  burn  was 
roaring  now.  The  minister,  if  such  he  can  be  called,  shrunk  back 
in  his  box,  and,  as  if  they  had  seen  it  in  printed  letters  of  fire  on 
the  heavens,  the  congregation  realized  that  Mr.  Watts,  whom  they 
had  been  on  the  point  of  calling,  read  his  sermon.  He  wrote  it 
out  on  pages  the  exact  size  of  those  in  the  Bible,  and  did  not 
scruple  to  fasten  these  into  the  Holy  Book  itself.  At  theatres, 
a  sullen  thunder  of  angry  voices  behind  the  scene  represents  a 
crowd  in  a  rage,  and  such  a  low,  long-drawn  howl  swept  the 
common  when  Mr.  Watts  was  found  out.  To  follow  a  pastor  who 
'•  read  "  seemed  to  the  Auld  Lichts  like  claiming  heaven  on  false 
pretences.  In  ten  minutes  the  session  alone,  with  Lang  Tammas 
and  Hendry,  were  on  the  common.  They  were  watched  by  many 
from  afar  off,  and,  when  one  comes  to  think  of  it  now,  looked  a 
little  curious  jumping,  like  trout  at  flies,  at  the  damning  papers 


258  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

still  fluttering  in  the  air.  The  minister  was  never  seen  in  our 
parts  again,  but  he  is  still  remembered  as  '•  Paper  Watts." — J.  M. 
Barrie  :  Auld  Licht  Idylls. 

3.  Discuss  the  force,  beauty,  novelty,  etc.,  of  the  figures 
of  speech  in  the  following  passages: 

She  felt  that  she  had  added  one  more  perplexity  to  their  full 
cup  of  apprehension. 

The  schoolroom  ceiling  had  been  plastered  with  paper  wads 
until  it  looked  like  a  photograph  of  the  moon. 

Her  face  shone  like  the  sun  through  the  night  of  her  tresses. — 
Arabian  Nights. 

And  so  we  look  beyond  to  the  white  expanse  of  the  cruel  desert 
that  makes  one  think  of  the  tales  of  suffering  and  death  it  holds 
folded  in  its  dry  breast. 

But  Truth  is  such  a  fly-away,  such  a  sly-boots,  so  untransport- 
able  and  unbarrelable  a  commodity,  that  it  is  as  bad  to  catch  as 
light. — Emerson. 

My  uncle  gave  a  kind  of  broken  cry  like  a  sheep's  bleat,  flung  up 
his  arms,  and  tumbled  to  the  floor  like  a  dead  man. — Stevenson. 

I  felt  the  hair  lift  at  the  back  of  my  head,  and  my  heart  thump 
like  a  thermantidote  paddle. — Kipling. 

We  were  all  huddled  together  close  to  the  trembling  horses,  with 
the  thunder  chattering  overhead,  and  the  lightning  spurting  like 
water  from  a  sluice,  all  ways  at  once. — Idem. 

The  lightning  spattered  the  sky  as  a  thrown  egg  spatters  a  barn 
door. — Idem. 

His  natural  tendency  is  to  shun  whatever  is  sharp  and  abrupt. 
He  loves  to  prolong  emotion,  and  lingers  in  his  honeyed  sensa- 
tions like  a  bee  in  the  translucent  cup  of  a  lily.  So  entirely  are 
beauty  and  delight  in  it  the  native  element  of  Spenser,  that, 
whenever  in  the  "  Faery  Queen  "  you  come  suddenly  on  the 
moral,  it  gives  you  a  sliock  of  unpleasant  surprise,  a  kind  of  grit, 
as  when  one's  teeth  close  on  a  bit  of  gravel  in  a  dish  of  straw- 
berries and  cream.  He  is  the  most  fluent  of  our  poets.  Sensation 
passing  through  emotion  into  revery  is  a  prime  quality  of  his 
mapner.  And  to  read  him  puts  one  in  the  condition  of  revery,  a 
state  of  mind  in  which  our  thoughts  and  feelings  float  motionless, 
as  one  sees  fish  do  in  a  gentle  stream,  with  just  enough  vibration 


BEAUTY.  259 

of  their  fins  to  keep  themselves  from  going  down  with  the  cur- 
rent, while  their  bodies  yield  indolently  to  all  its  soothing  curves. 
He  chooses  his  language  for  its  rich  sonorousness  rather  than  for 
intensity  of  meaning.  To  characterize  his  style  in  a  single  word, 
I  should  call  it  costly.  None  but  the  daintiest  and  nicest  phrases 
will  serve  him,  and  he  allures  us  from  one  to  the  other  with  such 
cunning  baits  of  alliteration,  and  such  sweet  lapses  of  verse,  that 
never  any  word  seems  more  eminent  than  the  rest,  nor  detains 
the  feeling  to  eddy  around  it,  but  you  must  go  on  to  the  end  be- 
fore you  have  time  to  stop  and  muse  over  the  wealth  that  has 
been  lavished  on  you. — Lowell. 

4.  Discuss  all  elements  of  style  m  the  following  passages 
that  are  either  essentially  or  incidentally  decorative,  includ- 
ing figures.  For  effective  and  in  the  main  judicious  use  of 
ornament,  see  Appendix  C  xviii  and  xix. 

I  can  see  in  fancy  the  houses  and  roof-tops,  some  probably  very 
old,  as  the  time-honored  moss  has  made  its  appearance  and  clings 
in  clusters  and  bunches  upon  the  shingles  and  overhangs  the 
eaves,  wliile  many  others  liave  the  appearance  of  recent  construc- 
tion as  the  new  coat  of  paint  cau.ses  the  now  western  sun  to  cast 
beautiful  reflections,  differing  according  as  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence varies.  .  .  .  The  school  grounds  are  similar  to  all  public- 
school  grounds.  If  they  could  talk,  what  stories  they  might  tell, 
but  I  see  them  yet  as  still  as  the  grave,  since  it  is  past  the  hour 
of  adjournment  and  the  little  youngsters  have  wended  their  way 
to  their  several  homes.  But  leaving  this  scene  and  the  beautiful 
green  fields  and  pastures  which  lie  to  the  left,  we  look  one  mile 
down  the  motor  track,  and  to  the  east  our  eyes  are  prone  to 
dwell  for  a  few  moments  upon  the  dull  form  of  the  "Star 
Flouring  Mills."  The  engine,  laboring  under  its  heavy  load, 
breathes  forth  immense  volumes  of  heavy  black  smoke. 

All  the  reformers  of  the  past  sought  to  free  the  body,  but  left 
the  mind  in  chains.  The  scientists  of  this  century  came  to  the 
rescue.  They  have  broken  the  shackles  of  superstition,  banished 
intolerance,  placed  reason  upon  the  throne.  The  voice  of  the 
statesman  may  be  drowned  in  the  hollow  mockery  of  legislative 
halls,  political  purity  may  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  maddened  rush 


260  WORDS  AND  PHRASES 

for  wealth,  but  the  discoveries  of  science  are  everlasting.     They 
are  placed  on  the  enduring  foundation  of  truth. 

Standing  on  these  heights  of  civilization  we  can  look  huok  and 
see  all  the  shoals  and  wrecks  of  time.  We  see  man  in  his  primi- 
tive state  when  war  and  conquest  are  his  highest  ambitions.  We 
see  him  in  the  slow  and  painful  stages  of  civilization.  We  see  him 
bending  a  suppliant  knee  before  the  thrones  of  tj'rants  and  tlie 
altars  of  superstition.  With  slow  and  faltering  step  he  emerges 
from  the  shade  of  despotism  into  the  broad  sunlight  of  democracy. 
In  the  light  of  progress  we  have  been  enabled  to  reap  the  harvests, 
the  seeds  of  which  were  sown  by  our  forefathers.  It  has  cleared 
away  the  mists  and  left  the  world  resplendent  in  a  noonday  civ- 
ilization. 

The  bright  sup  peeped  shyly  over  the  mountain-tops  down  into 
the  little  valley..  It  dried  the  dew  on  the  honeysuckle,  and 
roused  the  birds  into  activity. 

People  were  beginning  to  stir  at  the  farmhouse.  The  smoke 
was  curling  away  from  the  chimney  in  long  ringlets;  the  queen 
of  the  kitchen  seemed  at  war  with  the  kettles  and  pans. 

Noisily  the  chickens  sprung  from  their  prison,  to  partake  of 
their  morning  meal.  The  milch-cows  one  by  one  filed  into  their 
stanchions,  the  maids  were  hurrying  to  and  fro. 

The  horses  came  prancing  from  tlie  stables  for  a  morning  roll. 
Then  the  great  bell  was  rung,  water  was  plentifully  splattered 
about,  and  the  great  breakfast-table  was  relieved  of  its  bountiful 
load. 

Simple  jokes  and  puns  caused  much  merry  laughter,  and  gayly 
the  cider-mug  was  passed  from  hand  to  hand.  .  After  breakfast 
the  men  loitered  some  little  time  out  of  doors,  then  hastened  in 
different  directions  once  more.  The  horses  were  caught  and  har- 
nessed, and  the  old-fashioned  hay-wagon  jolted  down  the  lane. 
As  the  family  were  sitting  over  a  late  breakfast,  the  first  load  of 
sweet-smelling  hay  passed  the  window  to  be  stored  in  its  nest  in 
the  barn. 

Note.— The  following;  testimony  from  the  writer  of  the  above  sketch  will  help 
to  account  for  its  character  :  "  At  the  age  of  ten  I  read  mj'  first  novel,  entitled 
'  The  Queen  of  the  Isle.'  I  was  fascinated  even  with  the  title.  It  was  a  compli- 
cated love  story,  published  in  a  weekly  paper.  Kach  word  sank  deep  into  my 
heart,  rnd  1  would  read  and  reread  one  chapter  while  waiting  for  the  next," 


MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

Accuracy  can  scarcely  exist  witliout  neatness.  Writers 
and  readers  both  must  be  able  to  see  paragraphs  and  sen- 
tences clearly,  down  to  tlie  minutest  mark  of  punctuation, 
in  order  to  be  sure  that  language  and  construction  are  cor- 
rect. If  an  instructor  has  to  puzzle  over  the  chirography 
of  a  written  composition,  it  is  quite  impossible  for  him  to 
criticise  it  to  any  purpose.  Least  of  all  can  style  be 
judged  when  the  composition  cannot  be  read  at  a  glance. 
It  is  only  wisdom  therefore  on  the  part  of  the  writer  to 
study  neatness  and  legibility  and  all  the  mechanical  details 
that  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  a  maniiscript. 

61.  Chirography. — Almost  any  writer  can,  with  due 
care,  write  legibly.  The  simple  rules  are  to  avoid  close 
writing,  angularity,  and  flourishes,  and  to  write  all  proper 
names  with  especial  care.  It  seems  worth  while  to  specify 
the  few  chief  faults  to  which  illegible  writing  can  be 
traced.     They  are  as  follow: 

1.  Inclining  letters  too  far  forward.  The  vertical  sys- 
tem of  penmanship  is  the  most  legible. 

2.  Extending  loop-letters  until  they  interfere  with  the 
line  above  or  the  line  below. 

3.  Leaving  too  little  space  between  words.  Two  words 
should  never  be  run  together. 

4.  Failing  to  leave  a  larger  space  than  ordinary  between 
sentences,  or  after  a  semicolon. 

5.  Leaving  sj^ace  between  letters  of  the  same  word. 
This  is  done  most  frequently  after  a  capital. 

261 


26S  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

6.  Xeglectiug  to  dot  t's  or  cross  ^'s,  or  placing  the  dots 
and  crosses  recklessly.  The  habit  of  omitting  the  dot  over 
i  is  probably  the  worst  a  writer  can  fall  into. 

62.  The  Manuscript. — Unruled  letter  paper  (about  8  X 
10  or  8  X  11  inches)  will  be  found  most  suitable.  There 
may  be  a  marginal  ruling  1^  inches  deep.  In  quality  the 
paper  should  be  sufficiently  sized,  or  glazed,  to  take  ink, 
not  sufficiently  to  present  a  very  glossy  surface.  A  neutral 
tint  of  gray,  blue,  yellow,  or  manila  brown  is  preferable 
to  white. 

Write  on  one  side  only,  in  black  ink.  Leave  space 
above  the  title,  and  space  between  the  title  and  the  theme. 
Aim  to  observe  the  rules  that  govern  the  form  of  a  page  of 
print.  Leave  a  margin  of  \^  inches  at  left  for  instructor's 
criticisms.  Indent  the  first  word  of  each  paragraph  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  irrespective  of  where  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  ends.  Larger  divisions  of  the  essay  may  be 
indicated  by  leaving  an  entire  line  blank.  Insertions,  if 
made,  should  be  made  above  the  line,  with  a  caret  (a)  to 
indicate  the  place.  Make  erasures  by  drawing  a  single 
horizontal  line  through  the  words.  Do  not  use  marks  of 
parenthesis  for  this  purpose,  as  they  have  another  use  :  a 
printer  will  not  delete  but  will  set  up  in  type  everything 
found  within  marks  of  parenthesis.  Eestore  a  deleted 
word  by  a  line  of  dots  beneath  it.  L'nderscore  once  for 
italics,  twice  for  small  capitals,  three  times  for  CAPI- 
TALS. The  latter  are  rarely  used  except  for  headings. 
Foreign  words,  as  well  as  words  of  special  emphasis  (but 
see  48),  are  customarily  italicized.  Use  wave-line  under- 
scoring to  indicate  heavy-face  type.  Two  words  may  be 
transposed  by  drav/ing  a  line  over  the  first  and  continuing 
it  under  the  second.  Two  paragraphs  may  be  consolidated 
by  drawing  a  line  from  the  end  of  one  to  the  beginning  of 
the  other.     A  new  paragraph  that  has  been  "  run  in  "  by 


PUNCTUATION.  263 

error  may  be  indicated  by  the  paragraph  symbol  (1"). 
Number  the  pages. 

It  is  usually  desirable  that  the  sheets  be  not  fastened 
together.  Never  roll  a  manuscript  for  either  teacher  or 
printer.  If  the  theme  is  bulky,  the  sheets  should  not  be 
folded.  Where  short  themes  are  presented  in  large  num- 
bers, they  can  be  more  easily  handled  if  folded  once :  the 
fold  keeps  together  the  sheets  of  each  theme.  Fold  trans- 
versely, bringing  the  top  to  the  bottom:  this  leaves  the 
theme  in  a  more  nearly  square  shape,  and  besides,  the  fold 
does  not  break  all  of  the  lines  of  writing  nor  change  con- 
tinually the  angle  of  the  paper  to  the  eye  that  reads  it. 
Indorse  name  and  subject  on  the  outside,  at  the  margin 
end,  with  the  fold  to  the  right:  thus  the  right  hand,  in 
running  over  a  bunch  of  themes,  will  catch  entire  themes 
and  not  loose  leaves. 

63.  Punctuation. — If  punctuation  is  to  subserve  its  true 
end  of  assisting  the  reader's  understanding,  it  is  desirable 
not  only  that  there  be  consistency  on  the  part  of  each 
writer,  but  that  there  be  uniformity,  so  far  as  possible,  on 
the  part  of  all  writers.  This  in  general;  but  immediate 
clearness  will  sometimes  override  the  demands  of  consis- 
tency, so  that  punctuation  cannot  be  reduced  wholly  to 
i-ule.  We  cannot  give  an  exhaustive  treatise  of  the  matter 
— we  can  give  only  general  rules  with  some  special  con- 
siderations. 

1.  The  PERIOD  (.)  is  used  at  the  end  of  declarative  sen- 
tences, or  of  sentences  but  slightly  exclamatory.  Thus  the 
proper  use  of  the  period  depends  simply  on  a  knowledge  of 
what  constitutes  a  sentence  (see  28-30).  The  period  is 
also  used  after  certain  abbreviations  (see  64). 

2.  The  COMMA  (,)  has  various  functions.  Its  chief  func- 
tion is  to  keep  apart  things  that  are  not  logically  connected. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  sentences : 


264  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

The  man  says  my  informant  lies. 
Tlie  man,  says  my  informant,  lies. 

In  general,  so  long  as  there  is  no  appreciable  pause  in  the 
reading  of  a  sentence,  no  comma  should  be  inserted.  Three 
hundred  years  ago,  Bacon  punctuated  thus: 

This  same  trutli,  is  a  naked,  and  open  daylight,  that  does  not 
shew,  the  masques,  and  mummeries,  and  triumphs  of  the  world, 
half  so  stately,  and  daintily,  as  candlelights. 

To-day,  we  should  throw  away  every  comma  except  possibly 
the  one  after  "daylight."  Indeed,  the  tendency  is  just 
now  very  marked  to  ignore  slight  logical  pauses  so  long  as 
no  wrong  massing  of  parts  is  likely  to  result.  Such  sen- 
tences as  the  following  therefore  usually  stand  without 
commas : 

After  rising  take  a  cold  bath. 

Nobody  could  in  this  sense  love  nature  more  deeply. 

On  account  of  the  outside  work  of  the  members  it  was  found 
impracticable  to  maintain  the  society  and  the  motion  was  passed 
to  adjourn  sine  die. 

The  last  sentence  affords  an  example  of  ordinary  news- 
paper punctuation,  in  wdiich  commas  are  used  sparingly. 
Good,  logical  reasons  can  be  given,  however,  for  putting  a 
comma  after  "  society "  and  one  after  "members."'  The 
sentence  is  worth  studying.  Suppose  that,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  slight  danger  of  reading  "■  motion  "  as  a  second  object 
of  "'maintain,"  we  place  a  comma  after  "society.''  The 
effect  then  is  to  separate  the  sentence  into  two  parts,  caus- 
ing us  to  look  upon  the  introductory  phrase  (the  first  nine 
words)  as  an  integral  portion  of  the  first  part  only.  But 
the  influence  of  this  plirase  extends  over  the  second  part 
also.  We  must  therefore  take  this  phrase  out  of  the  first 
part  by  putting  a  comma  after  "members."  Now  we 
have  three  parts,  but  still  there  is  nothing  to  show  posi- 
tively that  the  first  phrase  must  be  read  with  all  that  fol- 


PUNCTUATION.  265 

lows,  since  what  follows  is  divided.  We  are  tempted  to 
remove  the  comma  we  luave  placed  after  "society."  Thus 
do  the  logical  claims  conflict,  owing  to  the  different  relative 
values  of  the  single  mark.  We  must  trust  to  the  reader's 
intelligence:  the  sentence  is  so  simple  that  he  cannot  fail 
to  understand  it,  and  perhaps  it  is  just  as  well  written  with- 
out commas  as  with  them.  The  important  thing  is  to  see 
to  it  that  the  sentence  cannot  j^ossibly  be  read  in  any  sense 
but  the  one  intended.     This  requires  close  watching. 

(1)  Construction. — After  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposi- 
tion, a  comma  must  often  be  used  before  a  new  subject  to 
prevent  that  subject  from  being  construed  as  tlio  object  of 
the  verb  or  preposition. 

Dairying,  stock-raising,  and  blacksmithing  are  taught  to  the 
boys  A  and  girls  receive  instruction  in  sewing,  cooking,  and  house- 
keeping. 

Many  similar  cases  will  arise,  which  it  is  not  worth  while 
to  classify.  In  the  following  sentence,  a  comma  is  needed 
after  "criticise"  to  show  that  it  does  not  govern  "tradi- 
tions " : 

Koman  history  teaches  students  to  criticise  a  and  not  to  accept 
traditions  as  historical  facts. 

Indeed,  we  are  brought  back  to  the  simple  principle  of 
massing,  of  making  the  proper  combinations  and  separa- 
tions. 

It  was  a  mistake  to  introduce  the  subject  of  native  Hawaiian 
music  A  because  the  reader  cannot  follow  it  out  for  himself. 

But  there  is  one  thing  that  poetry  must  be,  and  that  is  a  not 
prose. 

(2)  Parts  of  Speech.  — Similar  to  the  above  rule  is  the 
rule  requiring  a  comma  before  or  after  certain  words  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  same  words  used  as  different 
parts  of  speech.     Thus  the  comma  must  be  used  after  cer- 


266  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

taiu  adverbs  to  distinguisli  them  from  prepositions,  and  be- 
fore certain  conjunctions  to  distinguish  them  from  their 
use  in  other  rehitions.  In  particular,  a  comma  regularly 
stands  before  the  words  foi-  and  as  when  these  words  mean 
because. 

Below  A  the  foliage  is  of  a  much  lighter  green. 

Her  clothes  are  neat  ^  as  she  is  an  old  maid. 

At  this  place  we  decided  to  stop  ^  for  the  night  had  grown  daric 
and  inclement. 

(3)  Series. — In  a  series  of  two  or  more  words  or  phrases, 
standing  in  the  same  relation,  and  not  connected  by  con- 
junctions, a  comma  should  stand  between  each  two.  Usu- 
ally, a  comma  is  not  required  after  the  last,  though  this  will 
depend  on  the  relation  of  tlie  whole  series  to  the  sentence. 

Gambling,  swearing,  jirofane  language  of  all  kinds  had  been 
peremptorily  forbidden. 

When  a  connective  stands  between  each  two  members  of 
the  series,  commas  are  usually  not  employed.  They  may 
be  used  however  to  give  separate  emphasis  to  the  members: 

They  were  not  rough,  nor  hasty,  nor  disputatious. 

When  the  connective  stands  only  before  the  last  member 
(in  a  series  of  three  or  more),  the  comma  is  used  before  the 
connective  precisely  as  if  there  were  no  connective.  This 
is  necessary  to  prevent  the  last  two  members  from  seeming 
to  stand  in  some  closer  relation  than  the  other  members. 

They  were  helpful,  gentle,  patient,  and  placid. 

When  wo  have  a  series  of  adjectives  before  a  noun,  com- 
mas should  stand  only  between  those  adjectives  that  are  co- 
ordinate in  value. 

He  is  a  bright,  trustworthy  young  man. 

He  is  a  large,  strong,  young  man,  just  the  kind  one  would 
choose  for  so  hazardous  an  undertaking. 

Their  eyes  were  intently  fastened  on  the  iron-clamped  oaken 
door. 


PUNCTUATION.  267 

It  seemed  little  likely  that  they  should  be  able  to  break  in  this 
iron-clamped,  oaken  door. 

(4)  Adverbs. — Adverbs,  Avlien  used  to  modify,  not  a  sim- 
ple word,  but  an  entire  phrase  or  sentence,  thus  taking  on 
a  conjunctive  force,  are  usually  set  off  by  commas.  The 
rule  is  by  no  means  rigid.  When  the  sentence  is  short,  or 
when  the  adverb  readily  coalesces  with  the  sentence,  commas 
are  frequently  dispensed  with.  Or  the  punctuation  may 
differ  with  different  positions  of  the  adverb.  At  present 
the  tendency  is  very  strong  to  omit  commas  wherever  they 
are  not  necessary  to  clearness.  The  comma  is  often  useful 
to  distinguish  between  the  concessive  notv  or  the  illative 
then,  and  the  temporal  noiv  or  then. 

I  apprehend,  however,  that  I  attend  very  irregularly. 

Again,  we  may  not  regard  this  egotism  as  selfishness. 

Religion,  then,  has  an  undeniable  part  to  play. 

We  shall  never  know,  perhaps. 

Perhaps  we  shall  never  know. 

This  too  is  gain. 

After  all  there  is  a  northwest  passage  to  the  golden  shores  of 
Freedom . — Landor. 

It  is  therefore  beautiful  because  it  is  alive. — Emerson. 

Happily  Wednesday  morning  of  itself  brought  deliverance. — 
Carlyle. 

(5)  Parenthetic  Blements. — Vocatives,  appositives,  inter- 
jections, absolute  phrases,  and  in  general  all  elements  that 
are  parenthetical,  or  that  stand  outside  of  the  regular  con- 
struction of  the  sentence,  are  set  off  by  commas. 

Oh,  Sir,  you  do  not  know. 

Cyrus,  the  King,  spoke  to  his  subjects.  [But,  "Philip  the 
Bold."] 

Hookahs,  or  Persian  water-pipes,  are  much  used.  [But,  "  Cigars 
or  pipes."] 

Yes,  the  messenger  is  gone. 

Alas,  such  theories  are  very  lamentable. 


268  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

"  Come,"  said  he,  "  and  I  will  show  you." 
These  three  books,  and  they  are  not  expensive,  are  all  that  you 
will  need. 

(6)  Clauses. — Coordinate  clauses  are  usually  kept  apart 
by  commas. 

My  spirits  were  exhausted,  and  I  threw  myself  upon  a  bench. 

Subordinate  adverbial  clauses  are  in  general  set  olf  by  a 
comma  only  when  they  precede  the  verb. 

He  will  be  a  poet  if  he  can  see.  If  he  cannot  do  that,  it  is  of 
no  use  to  keep  stringing  rhymes  together. 

A  relative  clause  should  be  preceded  by  a  comma  when 
it  is  explanatory,  not  when  it  is  restrictive  (see  40). 

She  set  herself  to  the  task,  which  was  no  easy  one. 
The  hall  was  named  from  the  gallant  cavaliers  who  were  mas- 
sacred there. 

(7)  Transpositio?i.  —  Portions  of  a  sentence  that,  by 
transposition,  are  thrown  out  of  their  normal  place,  are  set 
off  by  commas  unless  the  construction  is  readily  apparent 
without  them. 

To  find  out  this,  you  task  the  whole  force  of  insight  that  is  in 
the  man.     [But,  "Thus  much  we  know."] 
Let  us,  for  argument's  sake,  assume  this. 

(8)  Before  Verb  or  Object. — Two  or  more  commas,  used, 
as  in  the  present  sentence,  to  set  off  semi-parenthetical  ele- 
ments, may  frequently  stand  between  a  noun  and  its  verb. 
But  that  a  single  comma  should  intervene  between  a  sub- 
ject and  its  verb,  or  between  a  verb  and  its  object,  is  illog- 
ical. Nevertheless,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  insert  such 
a  comma,  either  to  show  where  a  long  or  a  complex  subject 
ends  (especially  if  it  ends  with  a  verb),  or  to  indicate  that 
everything  following  the  verb  is  to  be  taken  as  complement 
or  object. 


PUNCTUATION.  269 

Whoso  faints,  fails. 

That  a  good  was  in  it,  admits  not  of  doubt.  Whatsoever  has 
existed  has  had  its  vahie.  [Thus  punctuates  Carlyle,  somewhat 
arbitrarily,  for  the  two  sentences  are  similar  in  construction.] 

Most  people  seem  even  to  think,  the  more  trees,  the  more  birds. 
— Lowell. 

That  preoccupation  of  the  dilettante  with  what  might  seem 
mere  details  of  form,  did  but  serve  the  purpose  of  bringing  to  the 
surface  certain  strong  personal  intuitions. 

(9)  Before  "  that.'" — The  comma  is  no  longer  used  before 
a  clause  introduced  by  tltat  after  verbs  of  thinking,  saying, 
etc.  The  comma  may  be  used,  however,  as  a  warning  that 
several  ^Aa^-clauses  are  to  follow;  or  it  may  be  used  to 
prevent  the  reader  from  mistaking  the  word  that  for  a  pro- 
noun. 

I  could  not  refrain  from  remarking  that  it  was  a  very  inoppor- 
tune moment. 

Now  you  will  observe,  that  thex-e  are  three  points  at  issue,  that 
two  of  them  are  seldom  discussed  intelligently,  and  that  one  is 
rarely  discussed  at  all. 

Then  he  volunteered  the  information,  that  they  were  all 
anxiously  waiting  for  this  very  thing  to  happen. 

(10)  BUipses. — A  comma  is  frequently  used  to  indicate 
an  omitted  portion  of  a  sentence.  The  various  elements 
of  dates,  addresses,  etc.,  are  separated  by  commas. 

An  institution  is  the  lengtliened  shadow  of  one  man  ;  as, 
Monachism,  of  the  Hermit  Antony;  the  Eeformation,  of  Luther; 
Quakerism,  of  Fox. — Emerson. 

The  letter  is  dated  September  6,  1897,  and  is  addressed  to 
William  Scott,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. 

3.   The  SEMicoLO^r  (;)  has  three  important  uses: 
It  serves  to  separate  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  the  connection  is  not  close  (especially  when  the  con- 
nective is  omitted),  while  it  is  yet  close  enough  to  demand 
some  outward  sign.     In  nearly  all  such  cases  it  is  possible 


270  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

to  use  a  period,  but  a  nice  discrimination  of  relations  would 
be  sacrificed  tliereby. 

The  semicolon  serves  to  separate  parts  of  a  simple  sen- 
tence that  have  a  coordinate  value  but  that  are  already 
somewhat  comj)licated  by  having  subordinate  parts  set  otf 
by  commas.  The  semicolon  here  performs  what  is  ordi- 
narily the  office  of  a  comma,  and  is  resorted  to  only  to  avoid 
confusion  with  commas  that  are  performing  other  offices, 
and  so  to  insure  a  proper  grouping  of  the  sentence  ele- 
ments. 

The  semicolon  is  regularly  used  before  the  abbreviations 
viz.,  e.g.,  etc.,  when  these  introduce  a  somewhat  extended 
list  of  examples. 

The  negro  leaped  out  of  the  hole;  tlie  doctor  dropped  his  book 
and  basket,  and  began  to  pray  in  German. 

Antithesis  defines  by  differences;  epigram  emphasizes  a  single 
idea.     [But,  tohile,  whereas,  might,  be  supplied.] 

In  calm  streams,  fishes;  birds,  in  sunshine,  play. 

Of  soldiers,  Castilian  and  Portuguese,  there  were  nineteen 
thousand  ;  of  gentlemen  volunteers,  a  thousand  ;  six  hundred 
priests,  servants,  strangers,  and  miscellaneous  officers  ;  and  two 
tliousand  men  besides,  of  not  sufficient  importance  to  be  particu- 
larly described  in  the  Spanish  records. 

In  newspaper  English  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  employ 
the  possessive  form  with  an  impersonal  word;  as,  "England's 
glorious  history,"  "A  train's  narrow  escape." 

4.   The  (;0L0X  (:)  has  three  uses: 

It  is  used  between  two  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence 
when  the  second  clause  stands  in  some  sort  of  apposition 
with  the  first,  repeating  the  idea  in  other  words,  or  adding 
an  explanation  or  illustration.  But  before  an  adversative 
clause,  or  before  a  clause  that  introduces  any  change  or 
advance  of  thought,  the  semicolon  or  comma  should  be 
used. 

In  rare  cases   the   colon  must  be  used  to  indicate  the 


PUNCTUATION.  271 

largest  groups  of  elements  in   a  sentence  that  is  already 
divided  and  subdivided  by  semicolons  and  commas. 

The  colon  is  regularly  used  after  such  phrases  as  says, 
these,  the  following,  etc.,  when  a  formal  quotation  or 
enumeration  follows.  Before  short,  informal  quotations, 
a  comma  is  usually  sufficient. 

A  soul  thus  fortified  is  like  a  diver  in  his  bell :  it  passes 
through  life  as  he  passes  through  the  sea,  unstained  but  isolated. 

Not  that  I  mean  to  vindicate  myself  in  any  great  degree  :  I 
know  too  well  what  a  whimsical  compound  I  am. 

It  is  a  sad  thing  to  have  to  study  to  drive  the  night  away;  a 
thing  which  till  now  I  never  had  occasion  to  practise  :  but  at 
present  I  am  reduced  to  it  ;  it  is  the  best  thing  I  can  do.  [The 
semicolons  are  scarcely  required  here,  but  if  they  be  used,  as 
Carlyle  uses  them,  then  the  colon  becomes  necessary  where  it 
stands,  although  the  position  (before  an  adversative)  would  ordi- 
narily require  a  semicolon.] 

Now  the  iron  bars  which  uselessly  enclosed  tliis  bit  of  ground, 
and  made  it  pestilent,  represented  a  quantity  of  work  which 
would  have  cleansed  the  Carshalton  pools  three  times  over:  of 
work,  partly  cramped  and  perilous,  in  the  mine  ;  partly  grievous 
and  horrible,  at  the  furnace  ;  partly  foolish  and  sedentary,  of  ill- 
taught  students  making  bad  designs  :  work  from  the  beginning  to 
the  last  fruits  of  it,  and  in  all  the  branches  of  it,  venomous, 
deathful,  and  miserable. 

Louise  hesitated  a  moment,  and  then  said:  "Who  is  he? 
What  is  he  ? " 

Briefly  the  case  is  thus  :  If  avocation  and  vocation  are  to  be 
held  synonymous,  English  is  poorer  by  a  useful,  and  richer  by  a 
superfluous,  term. 

5.  The  EXCLAMATiox-POiNT  (  !)  should  be  used  spar- 
ingly. It  is  not  needed  after  every  oh  or  alas  or  every 
slightly  exclamatory  sentence.  When  used  in  the  middle 
of  a  sentence,  a  capital  does  not  follow. 

6.  The  INTERROGATION-POINT  (?)  follows  all  questions, 
even  when  the  question  has  the  declarative  form.     Some- 


272  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

times,  when  the  sentence  is  long  and  not  entirely  interroga- 
tive, instead  of  being  placed  at  the  end  it  follows  imme- 
diately the  interrogative  portion.  Sometimes  it  follows 
each  separate  query  of  a  compound  interrogative  sentence. 
When  it  is  jjlaced  within  parentheses,  it  throws  doubt  upon 
the  word  or  date  just  preceding. 

Ah,  through  tliat  long  liigh  Gallery  what  Figures  have  passed 
— and  vanished ! 

You  think  so  ? 

Shall  we  blame  hira  ? — seeing  that  he  did  not  know  what  would 
be  expected  of  him,  and  that  he  would  not  have  understood  had 
he  known. 

Can  that  which  is  unsavory  be  eaten  without  salt  ?  or  is  there 
any  taste  in  the  white  of  an  egg  ? 

Does  he  dream  of  wealth  ?  or  fame  ?  or  empire  ?  or  happiness  ? 

Upon  the  whole  it  seems  very  cruel  in  me  to  describe  my 
miseries  in  such  glowing  colors  (does  it  not  ?)  and  make  you 
unhappy. 

Hengist  and  Horsa  landed  at  Ebbsfleet,  449  (?). 

7.  The  DASH  ( — )  has  several  common  uses.  Writers 
should  beware  of  using  it  indiscriminately  for  all  sorts  of 
punctuation-marks. 

It  is  used  to  indicate  informal  apposition,  just  as  the 
colon  is  used  to  indicate  formal  apposition.  A  comma 
usually  precedes  it. 

It  is  used  before  a  summarizing  word,  such  as  these, 
those,  all.  The  comma  or  semicolon  will  precede  it, 
according  as  the  elements  summarized  are  separated  by 
commas  or  semicolons. 

It  is  used  to  indicate  a  sudden  break  in  the  thought,  or 
a  violent  change  of  construction.  If  the  sentence  is  left 
unfinished,  the  next  sentence  or  paragraph  will  begin  with 
a  capital,  without  any  intervening  period. 

Two  dashes  (called  the  double  dash)  are  used,  one  before 
and  one  after  a  phrase  that  is  parenthetic  in  nature,  too 


PUNCTUATION.  273 

much  detached  to  be  inclosed  in  commas  simply,  and  yet  too 
vitally  related  to  be  shut  off  within  parentheses.  A  comma 
should  precede  the  first  (and  then  also  the  second)  dash 
only  in  case  a  comma  would  be  required  there  by  the  sen- 
tence if  there  were  no  parenthesis. 

Sometimes,  to  save  space,  the  short  speeches  of  a  col- 
loquy are  run  into  a  single  paragraph,  the  period  and  dash 
taking  the  place  of  paragraph  divisions. 

He  has  happily  united  the  two  most  familiar  emblems  of  Hfe, — 
the  short  journey,  and  the  inn. 

One  is  always  better  for  a  short  walk  in  the  morning  air, — a 
medicine  which  may  be  taken  over  and  over  again  without  any 
sense  of  sameness. 

To  watch  the  corn  grow,  and  the  blossoms  set ;  to  draw  hard 
breath  over  ploughshare  or  spade  ;  to  read,  to  think,  to  love,  to 
hope,  to  pray; — these  are  the  things  that  make  men  happy. 

There  was  a  case  once — but  that  is  another  story. 

The  motive  of  the  play — revenge  as  a  religious  duty— belongs 
only  to  a  social  state  in  which  the  traditions  of  barbarism  are 
still  operative. 

"Doing  what?"  asked  Tom. — "Poker!"  replied  Oakhurst, 
sententiously. 

8.  Parentheses,  (),  are  used  for  explanatory  phrases 
that  are  thrust  into  a  construction  without  being  made 
grammatically  dependent  upon  it.  It  is  well  to  avoid  paren- 
theses as  far  as  possible  by  dispensing  with  explanations 
that  are  not  vital,  and  by  finding  a  grammatical  construc- 
tion for  all  others.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  well  to 
make  the  double  dash  do  duty  for  all  sorts  of  parenthetical 
phrases. 

9.  Beackets,  [],  are  reserved  chiefly  for  interpolations 
within  quoted  matter,  made  by  the  writer  using  the  quota- 
tion.    See  7. 

10.  Tlie  APOSTROPHE  (')  is  used  before  s  of  the  possessive 
case.     The  apostrophe  and  s  should  be  added  even  though 


274  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

the  name  ends  in  s;  as,  "  Burns's  poems."  The  s  may  be 
omitted,  to  avoid  excessive  sibilance,  in  such  words  as  An- 
chises,  Crcesus;  thus,  "  Anchises' son. "  After  plurals  in 
the  possessive  case,  the  apostrophe  alone  is  used.  The 
apostrophe  is  also  used  to  indicate  omitted  letters,  as  in 
caii't,  I'll,  o"* clock. 

11.  Maeks  of  quotation  ('"')  enclose  quoted  matter. 
If  one  quotation  is  made  up  of  several  paragraphs,  the  marks 
are  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  but  are 
used  at  the  end  of  the  last  only:  only  thus  can  it  be  shown 
that  the  quotation  is  continuous.  If,  however,  the  para- 
graphs represent  the  speeches  of  different  speakers,  marks 
will  of  course  be  used  at  the  end  of  each  paragraph  also. 
The  marks  must  be  repeated  for  every  interpolated  said  he, 
etc.,  so  that  the  interpolation  shall  not  be  included.  Be- 
fore the  said  he  stands  also  a  comma  (or,  if  demanded,  an 
interrogation  or  exclamation  jjoint — never  a  period),  after 
the  said  he  stands  usually  a  comma.  But  if  a  semicolon  or 
period  belongs  jjroperly  at  the  end  of  the  portion  Just 
quoted,  that  mark  is  placed  after  the  said  he.  A  quotation 
within  a  quotation  is  indicated  by  single  marks  (' ');  one 
within  that,  by  double  marks;  and  so  on.  Titles  of  books, 
plays,  pictures,  are  usually  quoted;  the  names  of  periodi- 
cals and  characters  are  usually  italicized.*  As  to  relative 
position,  quotation  marks  stand  outside  of  other  marks 
when  these  marks  belong  to  the  quoted  matter.  They  are 
frequently  placed  outside  of  periods,  commas,  and  semi- 
colons, even  when  these  marks  are  not  properly  included, 
as  when  a  single  word  is  quoted  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 
Most  of  these  usages  will  be  found  illustrated  in  Appendix 
C  XVI  and  xix. 

*  Apparently  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  italicize  the  names  of  novels,  tales, 
and  poems,  and  to  (niole  tlie  titles  of  other  books  and  articles.  But  our  rule 
might  well  be  adhered  to,  if  only  to  distinguish,  for  example,  between  the  book 
"  Trilby  "  and  the  character  Trilby. 


ABBREVIATIONS.  275 

12.  The  HYPHEisr  (-)  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  line  when  a 
word  must  be  divided  there.  The  division  must  be  made 
at  the  end  of  a  syllable.  It  is  difficult  to  give  rules  for 
syllabication.  Pronunciation  may  be  relied  upon  largely, 
etymology  to  some  extent.  For  the  rest,  the  dictionary 
must  be  consulted  if  one  desires  uniformity.  For  example, 
the  ear  will  tell  us  what  is  the  first  syllable  of  the  word 
determine,  but  it  will  not  tell  us  the  second.  We  can  only 
consult  the  dictionary,  and  there  we  find  such  seeming  dis- 
crepancies as  form-al,  for-mer,  fa-tJier,  moth-er.  Divide 
between  double  consonants.  Divide  before  the  verbal  end- 
ings iiig,  ed  (when  it  is  pronounced  as  a  separate  syllable), 
adjective  er,  est,  nominal  Hon,  and  plural  es  unless  a  double 
consonant  or  a  soft  c  ox  g  precedes.  Never  divide  a  mono- 
syllable. Never  divide  ofl'  a  syllable  of  one  letter,  as  a-gainst, 
migJit-y.  Never  repeat  the  hyphen  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  line.     For  compound  words  see  66. 

64.  Abbreviations. — In  all  formal  composition,  abbre- 
viations should  be  as  far  as  possible  avoided.  It  is  quite 
impermissible  to  write  *'one  doz.  eggs"  as  if  one  were 
making  out  a  grocer's  bill.  The  following  abbreviations, 
however,  are  in  common  use: 

Mr.,  Mrs.,  Messrs.,  Dr.,  Pres.,  Prof.,  Gov.,  Capt.,  Lieut., 
Hon.,  Rt.  Hon.,  Eev.,  Rt.  Rev.,  St.,  Mt.,  when  used  be- 
fore proper  names.  All  of  the  titles,  however,  except  the 
first  four,  should  be  spelled  out  when  used  with  only  a  sur- 
name. Honorable  and  Reverend  should  be  preceded  by  the, 
and  should  not  be  used  with  a  surname  alone — Mr.  should 
be  inserted  if  other  names  or  initials  be  lacking;  as,  "the 
Rev.  Mr.  Boyd." 

Esq.,  Jr.,  and  such  titles  generally  as  A.B.,  F.  R.  S., 
U.S.N.,  when  used  after  proper  names. 

A.D.,  B.C.,  A.M.,  P.M.  (frequently  now  a.m.,  p.m.), 
etc.,  e.g.,  i.e.,  viz.,  and,  in  letters,  inst.,  prox.,  ult.,  P.S. 


276  MECHAmCAL   PROCESSES. 

Numbers  should  be  spelled  out.  Arabic  numerals  are 
used,  however,  in  dates,  addresses,  citations  of  pages  and 
the  like,  aud  sums  of  money  not  in  round  numbers.  They 
are  also  used  sometimes  when  the  number  is  a  large  one, 
reaching  into  thousands  or  higher,  or  when  there  are  many 
numbers  which  it  is  desirable  that  the  eye  should  readily 
catch,  and  in  technical  matter  generally.  In  such  cases, 
point  off  with  a  comma  every  three  digits  from  the  end,  ex- 
cept in  dates  and  street  numbers.  Roman  numerals  may 
be  used  to  designate  sovereigns,  in  which  case  a  period  fol- 
lows; as,  •' Charles  A'l.  of  France." 

In  citations,  foot-notes,  etc.,  abbreviations  and  numerals 
are  used  freely,  frequently  with  very  little  punctuation  in 
the  way  of  commas.     A  few  examples  Avill  illustrate: 

Cf.  Harleian  MS;  Brit.  Mus.  3469. 

Ruskin :  Mod.  Painters,  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Sec.  I.  Chap.  VII.  pp. 
237-239. 

2  Chron.  xx.  9.  (or,  2  Cliroii.  20  : 9). 

Sartor  liesartus.     Ed.  by  A.  MacMeeban.     Boston  :  Ginn  &  Co. 

65.  Capitals. — Only  doubtful  or  troublesome  cases  are 
here  cited. 

Capitalize  titles  only  when  used  with  the  name.  Pres- 
ident, however,  when  referring  to  the  president  of  a  repub- 
lic, is  usually  capitalized.  This  rule  can  be  applied  to 
many  other  words,  such  as  club,  company,  college,  high 
school,  county,  river, — that  is,  they  are  to  be  capitalized 
only  when  used  with  a  proper  name;  as,  the  Catskill 
Mountains,  Lime  Point,  St.  Joseph's  Academy. 

Capitalize  State  when  referring  to  one  of  the  United 
States. 

Capitalize  East,  North- West,  etc.,  when  used  as  nouns 
referring  to  definite  sections  of  a  country. 

Capitalize  names  of  political  parties,  fraternities,  and 
organizations  generally  ;  but  not  names  of  college  classes. 


CAPITALS.  277 

Capitalize  nouns  and  adjectives  of  distinct  nationality  or 
locality  :    French,  Yankee,  Indian,    Chinese    (not   negro, 

gypsy). 

Capitalize  Bible,  Gospel,  Scripture,  Christian,  and 
names  of  religious  sects;  names  of  the  Deity,  including 
pronouns  when  without  antecedent,  especially  of  the  second 
person. 

Capitalize  names  of  days,  months,  and  festivals,  but  not 
names  of  seasons. 

Capitalize  the  prefixes  von,  cle,  etc.,  only  when  not  pre- 
ceded by  title  or  Christian  name:  De  Quincey,  Thomas  de 
Quincey.  Some  prefer  to  follow  the  Continental  method, 
writing  these  prefixes  always  with  small  initial. 

Capitalize  the  important  words  of  all  titles  of  books,  etc., 
— that  is,  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and 
adverbs.  There  is  much  divergence  of  practice:  some 
would  capitalize  only  nonns  and  verbs,  others  would  capi- 
talize even  prepositions  when  they  are  long. 

Direct  quotations  and  direct  questions  that  are  virtually 
complete  sentences  should  begin  with  capitals.  Verse, 
unless  but  a  fragment  of  a  line,  should  be  quoted  in  verse 
form,  with  capital  at  beginning  of  each  line. 

In  botany  and  zoology,  the  names  of  classes,  families, 
and  genera  are  capitalized,  but  not  the  names  of  species 
unless  derived  from  a  proper  name,  in  zoology  not  then. 
These  names  are  also  usnally  italicized.  Thus :  Ranunculus 
bulbosus,  Ranunculus  Pennsylvanicus,  Ursus  americanus. 

The  foregoing  rules  are  general  only.  Practice  varies 
much  with  different  publishing  houses.  Various  circum- 
stances must  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  Thus,  a 
college  paper  or  a  college  catalogue  will  capitalize  the  word 
college  when  referring  to  its  own  college.  The  different 
departments  and  even  different  studies  may  be  dignified 
with  capitals,     The  tendency,  however^  is  to  reduce  the 


278  MECHANICAL   PROCEFSES. 

uumber  of  capitals  used.  Some  publications  go  so  far  as  to 
reject  all  capitals  but  the  first  from  the  titles  of  their  arti- 
cles, following  the  foreign  method  and  the  method  now  pre- 
scribed for  catalogues  by  the  American  Library  Association. 

66.  Compound  Words. — The  compounding  of  words, 
like  syllabication,  is  too  intricate  and  technical  to  be  taken 
up  in  detail  here.  Writers  are  in  the  habit  of  leaving 
compositors  and  proof-readers  to  wrestle  with  it.  There  is 
not,  and  never  has  been,  uniformity.  ]\Ir.  F.  H.  Teall 
has  attempted  to  reduce  the  matter  to  jDrinciple:  see  his 
"English  Compound  Words  and  Phrases"  or  the  Standard 
Dictionary  (p.  xv).     We  offer  a  few  suggestions: 

Keep  words  separate  so  long  as  possible  without  prejudice 
to  their  signification:  good  morning,  long  looked  for,  prison 
cell,  by  and  by. 

Try,  by  pronunciation,  whether  the  phrase  is  felt  to  be 
one  word  or  two.  Note  the  difference  between  "  It  is  a 
green  house"  and  "  It  is  a  greenhouse."  Once  men  said 
steam  boat,  as  to-day  we  say  electric  car;  but  now  it  is 
steamboat,  and  already  we  have  trolley-car.  This  test,  how- 
ever, will  not  determine  whether  the  compound  word  is  to  be 
hyphened  or  not,  although  a  fine  ear  may  detect  differences 
even  here.  A  honey-bee  is  recognized  as  a  bee,  distinct 
from  other  bees,  but  honeycomb  is  not  thought  of  as  comb 
at  all.     The  coalescence  is  often  only  a  matter  of  time. 

Phrases  made  into  attributive  adjectives  are  regularly 
compounded:  "  He  is  great  souled,"  "  He  is  a  great-souled 
man."  But  such  compounding  must  not  be  done  wantonly 
— in  particular,  many  printing-offices  object  to  the  com- 
pounding of  such  long  phrases  as  well  to  do,  never  to  be  for- 
gotten. 

Use  hyphen  in  all  manufactured  (not  in  the  standard) 
compounds  of  self-,  semi-,  denii-,  anti-. 

Use  hyphen  in  numerals  compounded  of  tens  and  digits: 


EXERCISES   ON  SECTIONS  63-66.  279 

twenty -jive,  ninety-iiine.  Xot,  however,  in  such  fractious 
as  one  half,  two  thirds,  ten  thousandths.  But  one  ten- 
thousandth,  a  two-thirds  interest.  The  pronunciation  test 
may  be  applied  here. 

Neither  hyjahen  nor  dia?resis  is  now  considered  necessary 
in  such  words  as  zoology,  cooperate,  preeminent,  reinvest. 

Xo  hyphen  is  used  before  the  suffix  lil'e,  unless  the 
formation  be  unusual  (as  when  like  is  appended  to  a  very 
long  word  or  to  a  proper  noun). 

Any,  no,  some  are  united  without  hyphen  to  hody,  thing, 
way,  wise,  how,  luhere,  lohither.  Some  takes  also  time, 
while,  and  what.  Every  coalesces  with  hody,  thing,  and 
where.     The  word  one  must  stand  entirely  separate. 

Write  to-day,  to-night,  to-morrow  (but  together). 

EXERCISES   ON    SECTIONS    63-66. 

1.  Punctuate  correctly  the  following  sentences  and  pas- 
sages, giving  reasons: 

After  pressing  the  frame  is  removed  from  the  box. 

AVhen  he  died  poor  people  lost  one  of  their  best  friends. 

The  topic  as  stated  at  the  outset  may  undergo  modification  in 
one  of  three  ways. 

These  mountains  are  covered  with  pines  and  grass  is  abundant 
for  months  after  the  rainy  season. 

On  a  flat  circular  island  in  New  York  harbor  surrounded  by 
the  commerce  and  traffic  for  which  the  metropolis  is  noted  stands 
the  Statue  of  Liberty. 

After  each  day's  work  the  men  would  talk  over  the  situation 
aud  just  before  Mackintosh  left  Williams  informed  him  that  he 
had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  Bardcn's  body  was  lying  under 
the  tailings  of  the  hydraulic  workings. 

After  the  queen  had  seated  herself  and  her  maids  like  a  flock 
of  butterflies  had  settled  around  her  the  stroke  of  a  bell  an- 
nounced the  beginning  of  the  revel. 

A  week  before  I  had  seen  the  name  enrolled  upon  the  hotel 
register. 


280  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

The  introduction  is  a  good  one  for  it  arouses  immediately  an 
interest  in  the  subject. 

If  the  weather  continues  cloudy  the  results  may  be  disastrous 
as  the  vines  are  likely  to  mildew. 

The  tree  presents  the  form  of  a  perfect  dome  but  within  the 
branches  form  an  impenetrable  thicket. 

This  sight  develops  in  Faust  a  reverence  for  the  beautiful  but 
it  is  simply  reverence  for  he  is  satisfied  to  worship  the  object 
from  a  distance. 

Take  a  and  b  or  c  and  d. 

There  were  streamers  of  red  blue  orange  and  green. 

The  secret  was  known  only  to  Ben  the  secretary  and  the 
treasurer. 

The  butcher  a  jolly  smiling  red-bearded  man  was  not  disposed 
to  answer  rashly. 

Love  patience  hospitality  faith  these  things  they  know. 

Everywhere  about  is  evidence  of  a  love  for  sweetness  and 
brightness  and  beauty. 

The  cottage  was  set  on  a  sloping  bank  with  clear  fountains 
flowing  beside  it  and  wild  flowers  and  noble  trees  and  goodly 
rocks  gathered  round. 

For  him  neither  flowers  bloom  nor  birds  sing  nor  fountains 
glisten. 

Her  long  silken  dark  brown  hair  was  taking  on  almost  golden 
tints  in  the  soft  afternoon  sunshine. 

However  this  might  be  accounted  for  by  a  difference  of  tem- 
perament. 

To-day  we  have  to-morrow  we  have  not. 

To-day  we  work  to-morrow  we  die. 

But  above  all  he  has  two  philosophies. 

A  wide  freedom  truly  ! 

Now  the  conceivable  imperfections  of  any  single  feature  are 
infinite. 

The  critics  too  may  say  of  it  what  they  please. 

Cease  fool  thy  prattle. 

She  this  good  Quakeress  is  as  much  like  an  angel  of  peace  as 
any  person  I  ever  saw. 

Oh  surely  my  good  mother  you  will  not  refuse  me  this. 


EXERCISES  ON  SECTIONS  63-66.  281 

And  these  are  not  observe  merely  moral  or  pathetic  attributes 
of  riches. 

Wait  and  thy  heart  shall  speak. 

The  farrier  looked  fierce  and  the  mild  butcher's  spirit  was 
roused  a  little. 

If  riches  increase  they  are  increased  that  use  them. 

His  genius  was  unemployed  only  when  it  M'as  unoccupied. 

Yet  I  suffer  willingly  for  my  purpose  is  good. 

Two  small  figures  had  huddled  together  in  a  distant  corner 
when  they  saw  that  their  apartment  was  being  invaded. 

The  buck  turned  and  caught  sight  of  my  cap  when  he  gave  a 
great  bound. 

Kitty  was  the  twenty-year-old  daughter  of  "  a  renter"  who 
had  come  from  Kansas  to  the  territory  six  months  before. 

The  type  of  mind  in  the  uncultivated  and  the  philosophizing 
classes  whom  George  Eliot  has  made  her  chief  study  is  much 
stiffer  and  more  monotonous. 

It  is  a  work  of  which  any  man  might  be  proud. 

How  far  art  is  capable  of  helping  us  in  such  happiness  we 
hardly  yet  know. 

Of  the  other  masters  represented  here  Tintoretto  is  the 
noblest. 

Just  why  Bettie  refused  to  allow  him  to  get  a  cook  for  her 
Jack  could  never  quite  understand. 

What  was  transitory  in  him  passes  away. 

The  truth  is  you  cannot  succeed  by  merely  affecting  success. 

This  wandering  away  in  thought  from  the  thing  seen  to  be  the 
business  of  life  is  not  however  peculiar  to  men  of  the  highest 
reasoning  powers. 

Tlie  fact  is  that  there  is  hardly  a  roadside  pond  or  pool  which 
has  not  as  much  landscape  in  it  as  above  it. 

It  will  be  observed  that  while  the  climate  in  the  state  is  damp 
yet  it  is  salubrious. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  man  in  his  present  condition  can  do  little 
to  alleviate  the  evil. 

At  one  time  he  is  a  radical  at  another  a  conservative. 

2.  Insert  commas,  semicolons,  and  colons,  wherever 
required  in  the  following  sentences: 


282  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

He  is  the  Lord  our  God  liis  judgments  are  in  all  the  earth. 

Milton  lived  complete  and  pure  to  the  end  without  loss  of  heart 
or  weakness  experience  could  not  instruct  nor  misfortune  depress 
him  he  endured  all  and  repented  of  nothing. 

They  study  in  the  first  year  English  Latin  and  Mathematics 
in  the  second  year  Greek  Latin  and  Mathematics  and  in  tiie  third 
year  Greek  Latin  and  Biology. 

It  would  take  some  pages  of  close  writing  to  point  out  one  by 
one  the  inanities  of  heart  soul  and  brain  which  such  a  conception 
involves  the  ineffable  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  the  event  and 
the  scene  of  it  the  incapacity  of  conceiving  anything  even  in 
ignorance  which  should  be  impressive. 

Usually  a  strong  writer  leaves  a  special  mark  in  some  particular 
region  of  mental  activity  the  final  product  of  him  is  to  fix  some 
persistent  religious  mood  or  some  decisive  intellectual  bias  or  else 
some  trick  of  the  tongue. 

Specifically  there  are  at  least  four  aims  to  point  out  freely  and 
vividly  the  follies  foibles  and  vices  of  the  times  to  introduce  a 
lighter  brighter  and  more  amusing  vein  of  poetry  into  English 
literature  to  acquaint  the  English  people  with  other  countries 
and  nations  and  to  inspire  lofty  ideals  of  life  and  conduct. 

Our  hand-baggage  con.sisted  of  the  following  articles  luncheon 
for  four  a  camera  a  telescope  and  two  rifles. 

Already  the  effects  of  the  harbor  improvements  are  being  seen 
the  depth  of  water  on  tlie  bar  has  noticeably  increased  the  shift- 
ing sand  has  formed  bulwarks  behind  the  jetty  extensions  and 
there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  jetty  walls  will  maintain  a 
permanent  channel  through  the  bar. 

3.  As  a  general  exercise,  write  out  the  following,  jtro])- 
erly  paragraphed,  capitalized,  and  punctuated: 

let  me  look  little  girl  he  said  quietly  in  french  she  handed  him 
the  newspaper  still  watching  his  face  the  beacon  he  muttered  read- 
ing aloud  from  the  ornamented  wrapper  a  weekly  journal  he 
threw  the  paper  down  and  returned  to  the  times  which  he  un- 
folded tell  me  hilda  he  said  is  mr  brooks  connected  with  this 
weekly  journal  the  beacon  her  back  was  turned  toward  him  she 
was  hanging  up  the  key  of  the  post-bag  on  a  nail  beside  the  fire- 
place yes  she  replied  without  looking  round  is  he  the  editor  yes 


SPELLING.  283 

the  count  turned  the  times  carelessly  ah  he  muttered  the  cholera 
iias  appeared  again  for  some  time  he  appeared  to  be  absorbed  in 
this  piece  of  news  then  he  spoke  again  i  know  something  of  a 
man  who  writes  for  that  newspaper  the  beacon  i  knew  his  father 
very  well  yes  interrogatively  from  hilda  the  count  glanced  at  her 
thomas  merton  he  said  we  know  him  also  she  answered  moving 
toward  the  bell 

67.  Spelling. — In  spite  of  mucli  agitation,  the  prospect 
for  a  rational  system  of  English  spelling  seems  to  be  very 
remote.  We  are  even  losing,  in  the  United  States,  some 
of  the  ground  gained  long  ago;  for,  owing  to  the  new  copy- 
right laws,  books  printed  from  tlie  same  plates  for  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  are  restoring  the  u  to  such  words  as 
labor  and  substituting  in  certain  -words  -ise  for  -ize,  to 
accord  with  the  demands  of  British  readers. 

1.  Any  tendency  toward  simpliiication,  however,  is  to 
be  encouraged,  and  accordingly  the  following  rules  are 
commended  for  observance : 

Reject  e  after  g  in  judgment,  acknoivledgment,  ahn'dg- 
ment,  lodgment. 

Drop  final  me  in  progrcun,  gram,  etc. 

Drop  final  te  in  quartet,  quintet,  sextet. 

Substitute  e  for  the  diplitliongs  ce  and  m  when  they  are 
pronounced  like  e  :  esthetic,  fetid. 

Do  not  dmible  I  or  j)  of  unaccented  syllables  before  the 
terminations  cd,  er,  ing :  equaled,  traveler,  worshped. 
Other  consonants  are  not  doubled  in  this  situation — there 
is  no  reason  why  these  should  be. 

When  two  spellings  are  in  use,  select  the  simpler:  wilful, 
fulfil,  dulness,  looolen,  ivhisky,  story,  develop,  mold,  ax, 
too,  rime  (for  r/ii/me). 

2.  A  few  other  simplifications  are  sometimes  ventured 
upon,  though  they  cannot  yet  be  employed  with  confidence. 
The  ue  is  sometimes  dro])ped  in  catalog,  etc.,  but  this  spell- 


284  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

ing  compels  catalogd,  or  else  the  ?*  must  be  retained,  cata- 
logued, just  as  the  k  is  still  retained  in  mindcked.  The  e 
is  sometimes  dropped  from  such  words  as  infinity  exquisit. 
For  ed  of  the  past  tense  pronounced  like  t,  the  letter  t  is 
sometimes  substituted:  lookt,  loopt,  vext.  The  Cliemica] 
Section  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  has  recommended  a  revised  spelling,  the  most 
important  items  in  which  are  the  dropping  of  final  e  in  such 
words  as  bromid,  bro/niii,  and  the  changing  of  ph  to  /in 
such  words  as  sulfur,  sulfate. 

3.  Uncertain  spellers  find  much  trouble  with  double  con- 
sonants. It  may  be  worth  while  to  call  their  attention  to 
a  principle  that  is  frequently  overlooked,  namely,  that  a 
single  consonant  is  regularly  (there  are  many  exceptions) 
associated  with  a  preceding  long  vowel,  a  double  consonant 
with  a  preceding  short  vowel.  Thus,  uiate  gives  mated, 
mat  gives  matted ;  rolie,  robing;  rob,  robbing ;  dine,  diner, 
dingier ;  write,  writing,  luritten. 

4.  The  following  words  are  frequently  misspelled  even 
by  fairly  good  spellers: 

accommodate.     Two  c's  and  two  ?n's. 

acknowledgment.     See  above,  1 . 

all  right.     We   have   alreadtj,    but  there    is   no   such  word   as 

alrigld. 
athletics.     Tliree  syllables;  do  not  insert  e  after  first. 
Christian.      That  the  i  precedes  the  a  can  be  determined  by 

the  pronunciation  :  i  =  y. 
column, 
describe,  description.    The  prefix  is  de  ;  if  it  were  dis,  we  should 

have  two   s's,  as  the  root  is  scribe;   besides,  dis  indicates 

separation,  an  idea  that  is  not  in  the  word. 
despair.     See  describe, 
develop,  development.     See  above,  1. 
disappear,     A   separation   of   the   word  into   its   elements   will 

show  at  once  that  tliore  is  no  reason  for  two  s's. 


SPELLING.  285 

disappoint.     See  disappear. 

etc.     Abbreviation  of  et  cetera,  tlierefore  not  ect. 

forcible. 

forty. 

grandeur. 

huge.     Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  proper  name  Hugh. 

humorous.  From  humor,  therefore  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  physiological  term  humerus. 

imagine.     One  m,  as  in  image. 

irrelevant.     There  is  no  such  word  as  irrevelant. 

its.  Tliere  is  no  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  pronoun;  Ws  is  a 
contraction  for  it  is. 

judgment.     See  above,  1. 

laboratory.     Five  syllables;  do  not  omit  first  o;  note  root,  labor. 

led.  Past  tense  of  lead;  not  like  past  tense  of  read;  distin- 
guished thus  from  the  mineral,  lead. 

lose.  Does  not  conform  to  the  spelling  of  choose;  loose  is  a 
different  word,  with  a  hissing  s. 

mimicking,  mimicker,  picnicking,  panicky.  The  k  is  inserted 
before  e,  i,  and  y,  to  preserve  c  hard. 

necessary.  One  c.  Whenever  c  is  doubled,  the  first  c  is  pro- 
nounced like  k,  as  in  flaccid,  accident. 

noticeable.  The  e  must  be  retained  to  preserve  c  soft  before  a. 
The  great  difficulty  is  to  remember  whether  the  suffix  is  able 
or  ible,  which  must  simply  be  remembered,  as  there  is  no 
rule.  When  the  suffix  is  ible,  an  e  following  c  is  dropped 
according  to  the  regular  rule  for  silent  final  e  :  forcible. 

occasion.  Double  s  only  after  short  a,  as  in  passion.  See 
above,  3. 

occasionally.  Not  occasionly,  for  ly  is  added  to  the  adjective 
form.  So  also,  accidentally ,  incidentally.  There  must  be 
two  Ts,  one  belonging  to  the  adjective,  one  to  the  suffix. 

occurred.    Two  c's  and  two  ?"'s  ;  see  above,  3. 

one's.     This  possessive  pronoun  requires  an  apostrophe. 

opportunity. 

origin,  original.  Not  origen,  nor  origional.  Careful  pronun- 
ciation will  fix  the  noun,  while  the  adjective,  by  being 
referred  to  the  noun,  can  be  kept  distinct  from  such  words  as 
region,  religion. 


286  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

perform. 

pervade. 

precede.     '  To  go  before.' 

principal.    Adjective  (meaning  chief).    Also  noun,  u.sed  in  sense 

of  that  which  is  chief :  as,  the  principal  of  a  scliool ;  in  a 

duel;  principal  of  a  note,  as  opposed  to  interest. 
principle.     Noun  only  ;  as,  a  principle  of  nature,  a  principle  of 

action,  a  principle  of  rhetoric. 
proceed.     '  To  go  on.' 

professor.     Prefix  joro — no  reason  for  two/^'s. 
pursue. 

recommend.     Prefix  re. 
rhythm. 

seize.     French,  saisir. 
separate,  separation.    Tlie  second  syllable  can  be  determined  by 

association  with  disparate^  comparate,  prepare,  loreparatlon. 
siege.     French,  siege. 
similar.     No  i  after  /.     Note  that  there  is   no  y  sound,  as  in 

familiar. 
stationary.     Adjective,  meaning  at  rest. 
stationery.     Noun,  meaniiig  ivriting  materials. 
temperament.     Four  syllables. 
together.     No  hyphen  ;  no  letter  a. 
truly. 

tyranny.     One  r ;  compare  tyrant. 
until.     The  I  is  doubled  only  in  the  monosyllable  till. 
village.     No  i  after  I.     There  is  no  y  sound  as  m  familiar. 
villain.     If   i  preceded   a,    we   should   have   a   y   sound   as   in 

CJtristian. 
volume.     Not  to  be  confounded  with  column  ;  note  voluminous, 

columnar. 

The  proper  digraph,  ei  or  ie,  can  often  be  determined  by  use 
of  the  key-word  lice;  that  is,  i  follows  Z,  e  follows  c:  believe, 
receive,  etc. 

Of  about  twenty  words  that  in  America  conform  to  the  present 
British  spelling  in  -ise.  the  only  troublesome  words  would  seem  to 
be  advertise,  criticise,  enterprise.  merolia))dise.  surprise. 

Prefer  inquire,  insure.    Usage  is  pretty  evenly  divided  between 


LETTER    WRITING.  287 

enclose,  endorse,  entrust,  envelop},  and  inclose,  indorse,  intrust, 
envelope.  Literary  usage  leans  to  endorse,  commercial  usage  to 
indorse. 

68.  Letter  Writing. — The  following  simple  forms  are 
given  to  show  the  conventional  arrangement,  punctuation, 
and  capitalization  of  the  parts  of  a  letter.  There  is  some 
variation  of  practice  in  regard  to  the  position  and  punctua- 
tion of  the  salutation.  The  salutation  may  be  followed  by 
a  comma,  or  a  colon,  or  a  colon  and  dash.  If  the  address 
is  long,  the  body  of  the  letter  may  begin  on  the  same 
line  with  the  salutation,  in  which  case  a  colon  follows  the 
salutation ;  or  the  salutation  may  begin  back  at  the  margin, 
with  the  body  beginning  below  it  as  usual.  In  type-written 
letters,  the  colon  is  frequently  replaced  by  a  comma  and 
dash,  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  shift-key.  But  so  long  as  the 
salutation  occupies  a  separate  line,  it  would  seem  sufficient 
to  use  the  comma  alone  after  it,  and  this  simpler  custom  is 
gaining  ground. 

34  Wilkes  St.,  Oakland,  Cal. 
January  5,  1898. 
Messrs.  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

Gentlemen, 

In  reply  to  your  inquiry  of 
December  29, 1  desire  to  say  that  I  have  already  received  a  copy 
of  the  book.     Thanking  you  for  your  kindness,  I  am, 

Very  truly  yours, 

James  L.  Warren. 
(Variations:) 

Messrs.  Henry  Holt  &  Co. , 

39  West  Twenty-third  St., 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Sirs  :  In  reply  to,  etc. 

or 
Dear  Sirs : — 

In  reply  to,  etc. 


'2S8  MECHANICAL  PB0CE8SE8. 

Newark,  N.  J. 

Jan.  12,  1898. 
My  dear  Brother, 

You  will  scarcely  believe  the  news  I  have  to  tell  you,  etc. 

Yours  as  ever, 

Tom  Walker. 
Dr.  John  Walker, 

Hartford,  Conn. 

69.  Theses. — lu  the  preparation  of  theses,  as  college  or 
university  work,  the  utmost  accuracy  and  neatness  should 
be  sought.  A  bibliography  of  sources  should  be  prefixed 
or  appended.  Explicit  references  should  be  given  in 
marginal  or  foot  notes,  preferably  in  red  ink.  A  running 
abstract,  or  table  of  contents,  is  also  desirable.  As  an 
example  of  the  general  form  and  manner  of  treatment, 
part  of  a  thesis  is  printed  here  : 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ON  THE  DEVELOP- 
MENT  OF  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Bibliography. 

Adams,  J.  Q.  A.  Memoirs.  Edited  by  Charles  Francis  Adams.  12 
Vols.     Philadelphia,  1874. 

Adams,  Henry.  History  of  the  United  States  during  Jefferson's  and 
Madison's  Administrations.     New  York,  1890. 

American  State  Papers,  Foreign  Relations.  Vols.  5  and  6.  Wash- 
ington, 1859. 

Amos,  Sheldon.     The  Science  of  Law.     New  York,  1891. 

Angell,  James  B.  Articles  in  Winsor,  Vol.  VII.  Boston  and 
New  York,  1889. 

Bancroft,  George.  History  of  the  United  States  of  America.  6  Vols. 
New  York,  1889. 

Calhoun,  J.  C.  The  Works  of.  Edited  by  Richard  K.  Cralle.  6 
Vols.     New  York,  1888. 

Davis,  Geo.  B.     Outlines  of  International  Law.     New  York,  1887. 

[Etc.,  etc.] 


THESES.  289 

Magazine  Articles. 

American  Historical  Association  Reports,  1891,  pp.  65-85.  Article 
br  J.  B.  Moore. 

American  Journal  of  Social  Science,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  117-122.  Extra- 
dition, by  Sheldon  Amos, 

Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  348-358.  American  Diplomacy,  by 
H.  T.  Tuckerman. 

Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  LXVI,  pp.  264-271.  International  Copyright, 
by  H.  C.  Lodge. 

Edinburgh  Review.  41  :  154-181.     Abolition  of  Impressment. 

[Etc.,  etc.] 

OUTLINE. 

I.  Introduction. 

1.   Character  of  International  Law. 

2    Effect  of  the  situation  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Scope  of  the  question. 

4.  American  attitude  toward  Europe. 
II.  Policy  during  the  Revolution. 

1.  Condition  of  International  Law  at  beginning  of  Revolution. 

a.   Severe  English  attitude. 

2.  European  attempts  to  expand  neutral  rights. 

3.  Revolutionary  altitude  of  the  United  States  toward  neutral 

commerce. 
[Etc.,  etc.] 

This  paper  is  not,  and  does  not  purport  to  be,  a  history  of 
international  law  ;  it  merely  attempts  to  trace  the  influence 
which  the  United  States  has  exercised  on  the  development  of 
certain  branches  of  this  law. 

International  law  comprises  the  aggregate  of  rules  and  limita- 
,  ,    tions  which  sovereign  states  agree  to  observe  in  their 

International  intercourse  and  relations  with  each  other.'  A 
I-aw.  nation  not  holding  intercourse  with  other  nations 
does  not  benefit  by  the  rights,  and  is  not  subject  to  the  obliga- 
tions, of  international  law. 

At  the  basis  of  international  law  lies  the  principle  of  mutual 
non-interference.''     Only  independent  and  sovereign  states  can  be 

■  Davis.    Int.  Law,  3. 

»  Sidgwick,    Elements  of  Politics,  230. 


290  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

parties  to  the  law  of  nations.'  The  independence  of  a  nation  is 
absolute,  and  not  subject  to  qualification  ;  so,  in  respect  to  their 
intercourse,  nations  are  equal.  It  results  from  this  equality  that 
whatever  is  lawful  for  one  nation  is  equally  lawful  for  another, 
and  whatever  is  unjustifiable  in  the  one  is  equally  unjustifiable  in 
the  other.=  This  independence  involves  the  right  to  use  means  to 
preserve  such  independence,  and  a  duty  to  respect  the  independ- 
ence of  other  nations.  But  when  we  inquire  as  to  what  definite 
portions  of  the  land  and  the  sea  are  subject  to  such  absolute 
jurisdiction,  questions  of  serious  import  arise  which  must  be 
settled  by  an  agreement  of  some  sort ;  questions  of  jurisdiction 
over  rivers,  the  high-seas  ;  questions  of  boundary  disputes  ;  and 
others.  One  nation,  with  due  regard  to  the  independence  of 
another,  should  maintain  neutrality  toward  other  nations  having 
disputes.  From  this  spring  the  rights  and  duties  of  neutral 
powers  and  also  the  rights  and  duties  of  belligerent  powers,  both 
to  each  other  and  to  neutrals. 

In  every  case  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  the  independence  of 
nations,  the  right  it  brings,  the  duties  it  imposes,  commensurate 
with  a  progressive  civilization,  which  form  the  subject  matter  of 
international  law.  With  the  development  of  intercourse  and  the 
changes  constantly  being  made  by  a  progressive  civilization,  these 
rights  and  duties  must  adapt  themselves  to  their  new  environ- 
ment. It  is  tlirough  these  changes  in  national  intercourse  that 
the  United  States  can  exercise  its  potent  influence. 

International  law  is  founded  on  moral  principles,  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  right  and  wrong.  Requiring  the  mutual  sanction  of  a 
number  of  nations  before  any  new  principle  can  be  established 
and  also  be  dependent  on  judicial  interpretation  (an  ultracon- 
servative  force),  it  follows  that  international  law  is  difficult  to 
establish,  hard  to  modify,  and  irregular  in  enforcement. 

Tiie  position  of  this  country  has  been  peculiarly  fortunate  in 

determining  its  attitude  on  questions  of  international 

uaUon°of  the    ^'''^"     ^^*"''^^<^^  almost  alone,  in  a  new  hemisphere, 

United  States,  ^'i^li  '<^  large  domain,  there  was  every  inducement  to 

avoid  entangling  alliances  and   aggressive  foreign 

policy,  and  to  promote  peaceful  and  amicable  relations  between 

>  Twias.    Law  of  Nations  During  Peace,  9. 
a  Ibid.,  11,  13. 


THESES.  291 

states.  It  was  hardly  because  of  a  merely  unselfish  devotion  to 
the  cause  of  international  rights  that  the  diplomatic  history  of 
our  country  has  been  on  the  whole  so  commendable  ;  for  in  some 
cases  where  selflsh  interests  were  involved,  the  United  States  has 
maintained  a  position  not  sanctioned  at  the  time  by  the  law  of 
nations.  But  it  has  been  because  a  fair  and  enlightened  policy 
was  most  conducive  to  the  immediate,  material  advancement  of 
the  nation.  Fortunate  it  is  that  this  has  been  true,  for  it  has 
perhaps  given  our  public  men  a  trend  of  policy  that  argues  well 
for  the  cause  and  the  high  development  of  international  law. 

In  order  adequately  to  cover  the  subject  it  would  be  necessary 

to  find  the  status  of  every  question  of  international  law  at  the 

time  the  United  States   was   born,    and  from  this 

question  ^^'^^e  the  changes  made,  and  the  influence  this 
nation  has  exercised  on  those  changes,  together 
with  the  rise  of  new  questions  which  require  settlement.  It  will 
be  possible  to  treat  but  a  few  of  these  important  questions,  leav- 
ing the  more  recent  developments  entirely  untouched. 

Coming  on  the  scene  as  a  new  nation,  our  attitude  toward  the 

rest  of  the  world  was  wholly  undefined.     As  Colonies,   all  our 

politics  had  been  the  politics  of  Europe,  so  that  the 

American  American  people  had  come  to  consider  themselves  a 
attitude  to- 
ward Europe.  P^rt  of  the  European  system.  The  one  idea,  how- 
ever, that  they  did  not  have  was,  that  they  should 
hold  themselves  entirely  aloof  from  the  Old  World.  But  there 
was  one  man  to  whom  this  policy  was  not  strange,  and  who  had 
a  well-defined  attitude  concerning  it,  and  that  was  George  Wash- 
ington. He  did  more  than  any  other  one  man  to  lay  down  as  a 
national  American  policy  the  idea  of  complete  independence, 
"to  administer  to  the  wants  of  other  nations  without  being 
engaged  in  their  quarrels."  ' 

"At  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  (and  following), 
the  commerce  of  the  world  was  governed,  or  ratlier  misgoverned, 
Condition  of  by  a  system  of  arbitrary  and  contradictory  rules 
International  imposed  by  the  great  maritime  powers,  especially 
ningofRevo-  Gr^^'e^t  Britain,  all  tending  one  way:  to  the  efface- 
lution.  ment  and  abolition  of  all  rights  of  small  neutral 
states  when  the   larger  powers  were   at   war  with  each  other. 

»  Lodge's  W^asliington,  II.  129-131. 


292  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

According  to  the  rules  of  English  fair-play,  the  ring  was  to  be 
cleared  and  outsiders  were  allowed  to  communicate  with  each 
other  only  under  severe  pains  and  penalties.  The  world  was  to 
stand  still,  and  starve,  it  might  be,  whenever  England  fought."  ' 
At  this  time,  as  well  as  later,  during  the  French  Revolution 
and  the  wars  that  grew  out  of  it,  there  were  disputed  points  of 

international  law.  England,  at  least  when  engaged 
Severe  Eng.  j^  ^^^  important  war,  held,  at  this  time,  the  foUow- 
hsh  attitude.  „.  ,     ,  .  .  ^     u     j     c 

ing:  First,  that  provisions  are  contraband  oi  war. 

Second,  that  after  notice  of  the  blockade  of  a  port,  vessels  bound 

to  it  might  be  taken  anywhere  on  the  high-seas ;  in  other  words, 

paper  blockades  were  legal.     Third,  the  rule  of  1756,  that  where 

a  European  country  forbade  trade  with  its   colonies  in  time  of 

peace,  it  should  not  open  it  to  neutrals  in  time  of  war.     Fourth, 

that  a  ship  might  be  captured  if  it  had  upon  it  goods  which  were 

property  of  the  enemy." 

The  United  States  was  not  the  only,   nor  the  first,  nation  to 

attempt  to  extend  the  rights  of  neutrals  beyond  the  scope  of  the 

,     above  rules.     The  rule '  of  the  Consolato  del  Mare, 
European  at-  ,  „        ,  i  •  ,  , 

tempts  to  ex-    that  enemy's  goods  wherever  found  were  liable  to 

pand  neutral  capture,  and  neutral  goods  were  exempt  from 
rights.  capture,  was  practically  the  rule  of  international 
law  down  to  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  1856.  And  this  was  due 
mainly  to  the  maritime  preponderance  of  England,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  in  a  few  treaties  England  acknowledges  the  rule 
that  "free  ships  make  free  goods."  *  Holland,  up  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century,  being  a  neutral  power  with 
important  commercial  interests,  exerted  her  influence  in  favor 
of  extended  neutral  rights.''  Many  of  the  less  important  com- 
mercial states  of  Europe  accepted  tlie  principle  of  "  free  ships 
free  goods.""     The  armed  neutralities  of  1780  and  1800  were 

'  Schuyler's  Diplomacy,  .367-8. 

'  These  principles  are  formulated  in  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  100-1. 
Each  provision  will  be  considered  in  its  appropriate  place. 

'  England  adopted  this  rule  at  the  organization  of  its  admiralty  courts  during 
the  reign  of  Edward  III. 

♦  In  a  small  number  of  treaties  ;  but  these  concessious  were  of  a  temporary 
character. 

*  Davis.     International  Law,  283, 

•  As,  the  Baltic  powers. 


THESES.  293 

made  to  defend  the  principle  of  free  ships,  free  goods,  and  other 
neutral  rights.' 

The  United  States,  even  before  she  became  a  nation,  in  her 
diplomatic  relations  with  foreign  powers,  asserted  continually  the 
Revolution-  doctrine  of  "free  ships  free  goods. "^  By  a  resolu- 
ary  attitude     tion  of  Congress,  October  5,  1780,  the  United  States 

St  t  ^  t  S^^^  ^^^  assent  to  the  principle  claimed  by  the  armed 

ward  neutral   neutrality  mentioned  above.'     Franklin  strikes  the 

commerce,  key-note  of  American  political  policy  in  a  letter  to 
Robert  Morris:*  "Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Holland  are 
raising  a  strong  naval  force  to  establish  the  free  navigation  for 
neutral  ships  and  of  all  their  cargoes,  though  belonging  to 
enemies,  except  contraband.  France  and  Spain  have  approved 
it  and  it  is  likely  to  become  henceforth  the  law  of  nations  that 
'free  ships  make  free  goods.'  I  wish  they  would  extend  it  still 
further  and  ordain  that  unarmed  trading  ships,  as  well  as  fisher- 
men and  tanners,  should  be  respected  as  working  for  the  common 
benefit  of  mankind  and  never  to  be  interrupted  in  their  opera- 
tions, even  by  national  enemies  ;  but  let  those  only  fight  with  one 
another  whose  trade  it  is,  and  who  are  armed  and  paid  for  the 
purpose."  ^ 

In  the  Treaty  of  Amity  and  Commerce  between  France  and  the 
United  States  in  1778,  very  liberal  provisions  for  trade  were 
secured.  "It  is  hereby  stipulated  that  free  ships  shall  also  give 
a  freedom  to  goods,  and  that  everything  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
free  and  exempt  which  shall  be  found  on  board  ships  belonging 
to  the  subjects  of  either  of  the  confederates,  although  the  whole 
lading,  or  any  part  thereof,  should  appertain  to  the  enemies  of 
either,  contraband  goods  being  always  excepted."  °   The  provisions 


1  Schuyler's  Diplomacy,  369-73. 

2  The  doctriue  that  "  free  ships  make  free  goods  "  applies,  of  course,  only  to 
such  goods  as  are  not  contraband  of  war.  Contraband  are  always  liable  to 
capture  by  either  belligerent. 

3  Schuyler's  Diplomacy,  374. 

■•  Written  June  3,  1780.  See  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American 
Revolution,  Wharton,  III.  761. 

s  The  liberality  of  Franklin's  rule  is  obvious.  The  question  of  its  practicabil- 
ity is  quite  different. 

«  From  Art.  23  of  Treaty  of  Amity  and  Commerce  between  France  and 
United  States.    See  Treaties  and  Conventions,  303.    This  is  a  fair  sample  of  the 


294  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

of  treaty  alliance  between  France  and  the  United  States,  by  which 
we  guaranteed  France  her  possessions  in  America,  is  apparently 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  neutrality  asserted  later  by  Wash- 
ington.' But  to  the  country  in  the  throes  of  a  revolution,  and 
scarcely  born  as  a  nation,  complete  and  consistent  national  policy 
was  impossible.  When,  however,  a  foreign  policy  becomes  neces- 
sary to  it  as  a  nation,  we  shall  find  that  policy  from  the  first  one 
of  strict  neutrality.^ 

wording  of  these  earlier  treaties.  Compare  Treaty  with  Netherlands,  1782. 
Ibid.  749.  But  in  this  treaty  the  principle  tliat  euemy's  ships  make  enemy's 
goods  is  also  recognized;  see  Art.  12.  However,  this  rule  is  not  generally  held 
by  the  U.  S.  politically,  and  even  here  it  is  restricted. 

'  Art.  II  of  the  Treaty  commences  :  "Tlie  two  parties  guarantee  mutually 
from  the  present  time  and  forever  against  all  other  powers,  to  wit :  The 
United  States  to  His  most  Christian  Majesty,  the  present  possessions  of  the 
Crown  of  France  in  America,  as  well  as  those  which  it  may  acquire  by  the 
future  Treaty  of  Peace."    Treaties  and  Conventions,  308. 

2  Davis.    International  L4w,  295. 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX   A. 

DISPUTED    AND    FAULTY    DICTION". 

The  purpose  of  this  list  is  to  call  attention  to  the  more 
frequent  and  important  errors  in  the  use  of  Englisli  words 
and  phrases.  Cases  of  doubtful  or  divergent  usage  are  also 
included.  The  list  is  much  abridged.  For  matters  not 
found  here,  the  student  is  referred  to  dictionaries,  particu- 
larly to  the  Appendix  on  Faulty  Diction  in  the  Standard 
Dictionary. 

above.     Not  "the  above  vpords,"  but  "the  foregoing  words,"  or 

"  the  words  written  above,"  or  "  the  words  above." 
action.     Better  not  used  concretely,  as  equivalent  to  act  or  deed. 
admit  of.     Not  wrong  in  such  sentences  as  "  His  words  admit  of 

two  constructions." 
affect,  effect.     The  former  means  to  touch  or  influence,  the  latter 

to  bring  about.     "It  affected  both  parties."     "It  effected  a 

revolution." 
aggravate.     To  make  heavy.     An  offence  may  be  aggravated  ; 

a  man  is  exasperated,  or  vexed. 
allude.     To  refer  indefinitely  or  incidentally.     Not  to  be  used  of 

an  explicit  reference. 
alternative.     Refers  properly  to  a  choice  between  two,  not  to  one 

of  the  two  things  that  may  be  chosen. 
animalcules.     Four  syllables.     There  is  also  a  Latin  plural  form, 

animalcula.     There  is  no  such  form  as  animalculoe. 
apparent.     Means  seeming  (whether  true  or  not).     Distinguish 

from  evident,  meaning  manifest  (and  true). 
appreciate.     To  value  at  real  worth.     Not  "I  appreciate  your 

kindness  very  much,"  but  simply  "I  appreciate  your  kindness." 

297 


298  APPENDIX  A. 

around.  Used  of  things  at  rest ;  round,  of  things  in  motion. 
The  distinction  is  not  much  observed,  possibly  because  another 
distinction  is  sometimes  felt  to  exist,  around  signifying  more 
clearly  a  complete  circuit. 

as.  Not  to  be  used  for  that  after  know.  Write  "  I  do  not  know 
that  he  will  come." 

as  far  as,  so  far  as.  The  latter  is  more  emphatic.  See  also  36, 
2,  note. 

as  though..     A  well-established  idiom,  equal  to  as  if. 

at.  This  preposition  is  to  be  preferred  to  in  before  the  names  of 
cities  and  towns  when  they  are  thought  of  as  geographical 
points.  "They  arrived  at  London."  "He  was  born  at 
Concord." 

at  about.    See  56. 

avocation.  A  subordinate  occupation,  or,  in  the  plural,  the 
minor  pursuits  and  duties  incident  to  a  vocation. 

awful,  horrible,  terrible.  Not  to  be  used  unless  the  emotions  of 
awe,  horror,  terror,  are  actually  involved.     See  52. 

back  of.   When  designating  place,  better  ieJiind,  or  at  the  hack  of. 

badly.     Inelegant  in  sense  of  greatly. 

balance.     Not  equivalent  to  remainder. 

been  to.  "  Have  you  been  to  the  office  ?"  might  be  defended  as 
idiomatic,  on  the  ground  that  heen  clearly  implies  motion  ; 
lieen  at  is  preferable,  however.  Such  usage  as  "He  is  to 
home  "  is  quite  inexcusable. 

being.  Objection  is  no  longer  made  to  "The  house  is  being 
built."  Such  forms  as  "  The  house  is  building  "  may,  if  they 
seem  more  elegant,  be  used  instead  so  long  as  they  are  per- 
fectly clear. 

beside,  besides.  Distinguish.  "Beside  this  house  stands  a  cot- 
tage."    "  Besides  this  house  he  owns  a  cottage." 

between.     Use  of  two  things  only. 

blame  on.  We  blame  a  man  for  a  deed,  or  we  lay  the  blame  for 
the  deed  upon  him,  but  we  should  not  "blame  the  deed  on" 
him. 

bound.     Colloquial  in  the  sense  of  determined. 

bursted.     The  parts  of  the  verb  are  burst,  hurst,  burst. 

but  what.  Use  but  that :  "  I  do  not  know  but  that  you  are 
right." 


DISPUTED  AND  FAULTY  DICTION.  299 

by,  with.  By  is  used  properly  of  the  agent,  with  of  the  instru- 
ment. Yet  hy  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  hy  means  of : 
"They  won  b}' fraud."  '•  He  was  tried  by  fire."  Also  when 
there  is  a  kind  of  personification  :  "He  was  cheered  by  the 
thought,"  etc.  Agency  may  not  be  clear  in  this  last  sentence, 
but  neither  is  instrumentality — there  is  no  agent  to  use  an 
instrument. 

calculated.     Implies  intent ;  not  merely  equivalent  to  likely. 

can.     Often  misused  for  may. 

can  but,  cannot  but.  The  former  means  can  no  more  than,  the 
latter  means  cannot  do  otherwise  than.  "  We  can  but  try." 
"  We  cannot  but  succeed." 

cannot  help  but.     See  56. 

capacity.     Not  equivalent  to  aldlity. 

celebrity,  eccentricity,  etc.  Vulgar  in  the  sense  of  one  who  is 
celebrated,  one  who  is  eccentric,  etc. 

charge.  Note  the  ambiguity  of  "  He  was  left  in  charge  of  his 
brother."  Strictly,  of  course,  if  the  brother  has  the  oversight, 
it  should  be  "in  the  charge  of." 

climax.     Properly  the  ascent,  not  the  highest  point,  or  acme. 

commence.  Not  to  be  used  with  infinitive.  Begin  is  generally 
preferable. 

complected.  The  word  has  no  connection  in  meaning  with  com- 
plexion.    We  may  say  "  light-complexioned." 

condign.     Means  merited,  worthy,  not  severe. 

confuse.  When  used  of  two  things  only,  confound  is  to  be 
preferred. 

conscious.  Means  knowing  to  or  within  one''s  self.  We  are  con- 
scious of  our  own  faults,  aware  of  another's. 

continue  on.     On  is  superfluous. 

couple.     Vulgarly  used  of  things  not  paired. 

data.     Plural.     The  singular  is  datum. 

differ.     Differ  from,  in  character;  differ  from  or  with,  in  opinion. 

different  than.     Write  other  than. 

different  to.     Write  different  from. 

don't.  Incorrect  in  thii'd  singular ;  use  doesn't,  if  a  contracted 
form  is  to  be  used  at  all. 

doubt  but,  doubt  but  that.     Use  simply  doubt  that. 

dove.     Colloquial  only  ;  use  dived. 


300  APPENDIX  A. 

each  other.  May  be  used  for  more  than  two,  though  possibly 
one  another  is  preferable,  as  serving  to  make  a  distinction. 

effect.     See  affect. 

either.  As  an  adjective  or  pronoun,  means  one  of  two ;  as  a 
conjunction,  may  be  used  of  more  than  two  :  Either  ...  or 
.  .  .  or  .  .  . 

electrocute.  The  word  is  scarcely  established.  Electricute, 
suggested  by  Prof.  F.  A.  March,  is  approved  by  the  Standard 
Dictionary. 

else's.  Shall  we  write  soniehody  ehe\s,  or  somebody's  else?  Con- 
sider ease  and  naturalness  :  sometimes  one  form  is  better, 
sometimes  the  other.  "The  book  can  be  nobody's  else." 
"Whose  else  should  it  be?"  "It  is  nobody  else's  book." 
Compare  this  sentence  from  Froude  :  "A  few  provision  ships 
came  off  from  the  Thames  with  a  day  or  two's  rations." 

enough.  Avoid  such  awkward  expressions  as  "A  large  enough 
house." 

enthuse.     Slang. 

environment.  The  word  should,  in  general,  be  reserved  for 
technical  use. 

ephemera.     Plural. 

ere.     Piu'tie. 

farther,  further.  Writers  who  desire  to  keep  the  words  distinct 
use  the  former  for  distance,  the  latter  for  quantity  or  degree. 

feel  badly.  Feel  had  is  the  correct  form  (but  lad  in  this  sense  is 
colloquial). 

fictitious  writer.     Not  equivalent  to  a  writer  of  fiction. 

firstly.     The  adverb  form  is  first  (but  secondly,  thirdly,  etc.). 

first  two.     Preferable  to  two  first. 

first-rate.     Adjective  ;  as  an  adverb,  colloquial  only. 

fix.  Not  to  be  used  loosely  for  repair,  arrange,  etc.  Fix  up  is 
likewise  to  be  avoided. 

flown.  From  y^y;  principal  parts:  fly,  flew,  flown.  Flow  is 
regular:  floiv,  floived,  flowed. 

folks.     Tlie  word  is  now  well  established;  as,  "  The  old  folks." 

from  hence.     From  is  superfluous.     See  56. 

good  deal.     Good  idiom. 

got.     Not  to  be  used  as  simply  equivalent  to  have. 


DISPUTED  AND   FAULTY  DiCTtON.  301 

graduate.  "He  was  graduated "  is  more  precise,  but  "He 
H'ladiiated  ''  is  also  now  well  established. 

had  better,  had  rather.  Good  idiom,  especially  the  former. 
See  56. 

had  have.     Not  "  had  I  have  known,"  but  "  had  I  known." 

had  ought.     Vulgar. 

hardly,  scarcely.     The  correlative  is  ivhen,  not  than. 

healthful.     Salubrious— applied  to  climate,  diet,  etc. 

healthy.  Sound— applied  to  persons.  With  the  idea  of  morally 
salutary,  either  healthy  or  healthful  may  be  used,  properly 
the  latter  ;  yet  we  most  naturally  speak  of  a  healthy  book, 
meaning  that  it  has  a  healthy  tone,  that  it  is  conducive  to 
moral  health  because  it  has  in  itself  the  qualities  of  moral 
health. 

hereabouts.     Final  s  is  uniiecessary. 

hit.     See  52. 

home.  As  an  adverb,  to  be  used  only  with  w'ords  of  motion  : 
"  He  went  home,"  not  "  He  is  home."  In  "  If  I  only  were 
home  now  "  (a  sigh  for  the  completion  of  a  journey)  the  idea 
of  motion  is  perceptible.     Compare  been  to. 

hung.  Hanged  is  the  preferred  form  for  put  to  death  on  tlie 
fjalloivs. 

ideal.  As  an  adjective,  not  to  be  used  loosely  for  heautiful.  As 
a  noun,  not  to  be  used  for  idea. 

if.  Not  to  be  used  for  whether  in  prose  :  "  I  do  not  know 
whether  lie  was  informed."  Note  that  if  may  have  a  con- 
cessive meaning,  and  so  ambiguity  may  arise.  "  If  he  is  a 
Liberal,  he  is  a  loyal  subject "  has  very  different  meanings 
according  as  the  emphasis  is  thrown  on  is  or  on  Liberal. 

illusion.  A  false  image,  etc.;  not  to  be  confounded  with  allu- 
sion. 

illy.     No  longer  in  use  ;  ill  is  both  adjective  and  adverb. 

in,  into.  In  denotes  condition,  state,  rest;  into  denotes  motion. 
See  also  at,  on,  and  onto. 

in  our  midst.  The  phrase  has  long  been  condemned,  but  is  well 
established. 

in  so  far  as.     The  in  is  redundant. 

indention.     Printer's  term.     The  word  indentation  is  different. 


302  APPENDIX  A. 

individual.  Xot  to  be  used  loosely  for  a  person,  but  always  of  a 
single  person  as  opposed  to  many. 

kind  of  a.     See  56. 

lady.  Xot  to  be  used  for  wife.  Not  to  be  used  out  of  affecta- 
tion, where  the  word  ivoman  will  answer  as  well.  It  is  used 
as  the  correlative  of  gentleman,  since  gentlewoman  has  the 
misfortune  to  be  rare  and  therefore  to  seem  affected.  But 
the  term  young  ladies  may  and  should  be  avoided — young 
tvomen  is  the  proper  correlative  of  young  men. 

last  two.     See  first  two. 

later  on.     On  should  be  omitted. 

leave.  Not  to  be  used  for  let  followed  by  an  infinitive.  Not 
"leave  me  do  it,"  but  "let  me  do  it,''  "let  me  go,"  etc. 
Leave  alone  may  be  correct,  but,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
phrase,  let  alone  is  preferable. 

less.     Not  to  be  used  of  numbers,  in  place  oi  fewer. 

lesser.     Irregular,  but  established. 

liable.  To  be  used  as  equivalent  to  likely  only  in  an  unfavorable 
sense  ;  as,  "Men  are  liable  to  err,"  not  "  He  is  liable  to  ap- 
pear at  any  moment."  Properly  used  with  nouns  in  sense  of 
exposed :  "He  is  liable  to  punishment." 

like.  To  be  used  in  comparisons  only  when  it  may  properly  be 
followed  by  to.  "  He  talks  like  a  sage  ";  but,  "  He  talks  as 
a  sensible  man  should." 

limited.     Not  to  be  used  for  small,  scant. 

little.     See  slight. 

loan.     As  a  verb,  lend  is  better. 

locate.  The  loose  use  of  this  word  is  perhaps  confined  to  the 
United  States.  The  intransitive  use,  as  equivalent  to  settle, 
is  bad. 

look  badly,  beautifully,  etc.     See  feel  badly. 

lot  of,  lots  of.     Colloquial,  or  even  vulgar. 

love.     Not  to  be  used  for  like,  with  no  thought  of  affection. 

mad.     Not  a  substitute  for  angry. 

most.  Not  to  be  used  for  almost.  Tlie  colloquial  contraction 
'most  may  be  used  in  dialect. 

motion.  Distinguished  from  movement,  as  abstract  from  con- 
crete.    Compare  action. 

mutual  friend.     Often  condemned,  but  without  sufficient  reason. 


DISPUTED  AND  FAULTY  DICTION.  303 

myself.     Not  to  be  used  for  I:  not  "John,  Mary,  and  myself 

made  up  the  party. " 
necessitate.     The  word  is  not  needed  in  ordinary  discourse. 
necessity.     Not  "  the  necessities  of  life,"  but  "  the  necessaries  of 

life." 
neither.     As  an  adjective  or  pronoun  the  word  means  not  either 

of  two.     As  a  conjunction,  there  is  no  good  reason,  perhaps, 

why  it  should  not  introduce  a  series  of  more  than  two,  but 

there  is  little  sanction  of  the  usage:   "neither  death,  nor 

life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,"  etc.     Compare  either. 

See  also  41,  note, 
nice.     Not  to  be  used  loosely  for  pleasant.      Properly,  the  word 

means  delicate,  discrimiuating. 
no  use.     Write,  "  It  is  of  no  use."     See  58,  1. 
none.     Singular  or  plural.     See  31,  6,  note. 
not  as.     See  36,  2,  note. 
0,  oh.     Use  0  in   apostrophe  and  address,  otherwise  oh.     The 

following  will  illustrate  the  obscurity  that  may  result  from  a 

failure  to  observe  the  distinction  : 

For  thee,  the  new  coasts,  gleaming  still  ; 

For  us,  the  hope,  the  plunge,  the  engulfing  night ! 
O  land  !  and  set  thy  beacon  on  the  hill ! 

Our  pilot  unto  light ! 

observance.     Ceremonious  regard. 

observation.     Act  of  taking  notice. 

off  of.     Off\ii  a  preposition — the  of  is  not  needed. 

on  Blank  Street.     Colloquial,  U.  S.     Better  in  Blank  Street. 

one.  When  this  indefinite  pronoun  is  used,  the  weight  of  authority 
is  in  favor  of  retaining  it  throughout  a  sentence  or  passage, 
instead  of  following  it  up  with  he,  his,  etc.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  latter  pronouns  would  seem  preferable  to  tlie 
monotonous  repetition  of  one. 

ones.     M\  allowable  plural,  but  for  the  most  part  easily  avoided. 

oneself.  The  form  has  some  authority,  but  one's  self  is  pre- 
ferred. 

onto.  It  is  difficult  to  regard  this  form  with  favor,  but  there  can 
be  no  question  that  it  is  steadily  gaining  ground.  For  the 
present,  a  writer  will  do  well  to  ask  himself,  in  every  case. 


304  APPENDIX  A. 

whether  upon  (or  at  any  rate  on  to)  will  not  serve  his  pur- 
pose equally  well. 

optimism.  Not  to  be  used  loosely  for  cheeriness — the  word  has 
reference  to  a  philosophic  attitude. 

out.  Not  to  be  used  as  a  preposition.  Not  "I  looked  out  the 
window,"  but  "  I  looked  out  of  the  window." 

overly.  Write  overnice,  overdeveloped,  etc.  Over  here  is  prop- 
erlj^  a  combining  preposition,  like  under,  though  it  is  some- 
times written  separately  :  over  fastidious.  Overly  is  col- 
loquial only. 

pack.  Not  to  be  used  for  carry,  except  of  things  actually  packed 
and  carried  on  the  back  of  a  pack-animal. 

party.     Not  to  be  used  for  person,  except  in  legal  sense. 

past  ten  days,  etc.     Prefer  last  ten  days. 

people,  person.  The  word  people  as  equivalent  to  persons  is 
often  censured.  People  is  not  well  used  of  a  small  number, 
as,  "  two  or  three  people";  but  "some  young  people"  is  far 
better  than  "some  young  persons."  Person  is  itself  often 
not  in  good  taste  ;  "A  person  dislikes  to  take  such  chances  " 
were  better  written  "One  dislikes  to  take  such  chances." 
The  usage  has  probably  arisen  from  the  need  of  some  color- 
less word  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  word  wiyht. 

pessimism.     See  optimism. 

phenomena.     Plural  form.     The  singular  is  phenomenon. 

plead.     The  preferred  preterite  is  pleaded. 

plenty.     Not  to  be  used  as  adjective  or  adverb. 

portion.     See  52. 

posted.     Write  infoi-med,  or  ^cell  informed. 

preventative.     Preventive  is  preferable. 

previous  to.     Write  previously  to  or  before. 

proof.  To  be  distinguished  from  evidence:  not  "pretty  good 
proof,"  nor  "conclusive  proof,"  but  "evidence"; — conclu- 
sive evidence  .amounts  to  proof. 

providing.     Not  to  be  used  as  a  conjunction,  Wke  jn-ovided. 

proven.     An  irregular  form  ;  jyroved  is  to  be  preferred. 

quite.  The  word  should  bo  kept  to  its  strict  meaning  of  wholly  ; 
as,  "  You  are  quite  right,"  "  The  man  is  quite  dead."  In  the 
sense  of  very,  as  "The  man  is  quite  sick,"  the  word  has  much 
authority  and  the  weight  of  almost  universal  colloquial  usage, 


DISPUTED   AND   FAULTY  DICTION.  305 

but  if  it  be  allowed  in  this  sense,  the  word  almost  entirely 

loses  its  value,  since  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell  just  what  it 

does  mean  in  a  given  case. 
raise.     Corn  and  cattle  are  raised;  human  beings  are  brought 

up,  or  reaied. 
rarely  ever.     Ever  is  superfluous. 

rather  a.     "A  rather  severe  cold,"  not  "  rather  a  severe  cold." 
real.     Not  an  adverb  :  not  "  real  good,"  but  "  really  good." 
referee.     Not  in  good  use  as  a  verb,  though  umpire  may  be  so 

used. 
right   ahead,   right  now,   etc.     Excessive   use   of  the  locution 

should  be  avoided. 
rise  up.     Ujy  is  unnecessary  ;  it  has  crept  in,  doubtless,  to  balance 

the  phrase   with  sit  down,   the  real  opposite  of  which  is 

stand  up. 
round.     See  around, 
same.     "It  is  the  same  problem  that   (not   as)   troubled  me." 

But,  "  Your  problem  is  the  same  as  mine." 
scarcely.    See  hardly, 
side-hill.     Provincial  for  hillside. 
slight.     Note  the  ambiguity  of  emphasis  in  such  phrases  as 

"with  slight  exaggeration."     This  phrase  may  mean  "with 

some  little  exaggeration,"  or  "  with  very  little  exaggeration." 
some.     Not  to  be  used  for  someivhat,   a   little,  as  in  "I  was 

injured  some,"  "  He  worked  some  each  day." 
some  place.     Not  to  be  used  for  somewhere. 
something.     Archaic  as  an  adverb  for  somewhat. 
sort  of  a.     See  56. 
speciality.     Not  to  be  used  for  sjiecialty.    Speciality  means  the 

state  or  quality  of  being  special. 
stop.     Frequently  used   for  stay  in  such   sentences   as   "He  is 

stopping  at  the  Franklin  House."     Consider  always  whether 

stay  or  sojourn  will  not  convey  the  intended  meaning, 
strata.     Plural.     The  singular  is  stratum. 
subsequent  to.     See  previous  to. 
such.     Such  as,  not  such  w/iich  or  who.     Such  that,  to  express 

result. 
sundown,  sunup.     Colloquial  or  local. 


30f)  APPENDIX  A. 

supposing.     In  introducing    a    supposition,   use  the  imperative 

form,  suppose.     Compare  providing, 
syllabi.     Plural.     The  singular  is  syllabus. 
sympathy   for.     Properly   sympathy  with.      But   if   we   admit 

pity,  commiseration,  as  one  of  the  meanings  of  sympathy, 

then  we  shall  have  to  admit  in  some  cases  sympathy  for. 
talented.     The  word  is  good, 
than  whom.     Permissible. 
that  far,  that  much,  etc.     Use  so  far,  so  tmich. 
this  far,  this  much,  etc.     Use  thus  far,  thus  much. 
thereabouts.     See  hereabouts, 
through.     Inelegant  for  done,  finished. 
too  delighted,  etc.    See  34,  3. 
toward,  towards.     Toward  is  the  older,  and  in  general  the  more 

euphonious,  form. 
transpire.     Not  to  be  used  for  occur,  happen.     The  word  means 

to  become  known. 
try  and.     See  35,  1, 
unbeknown.     Provincial  for  unknown. 
underhanded.     Prefer  underhand. 
very  pleased,  etc.     See  34,  3. 
way.     Not  to  be  used   for  away,   in  such  phrases  as    "  away 

back,"  "  away  down,"  except  in  dialect,  when  it  must  have 

the  sign  of  elision,  ''way.     Compare  ''most. 
ways.     Not  to  be  used  for  %oay  in  "a  long  way,"  etc. 
whence  from.     From  is  superfluous.     See  56. 
where  at,  where  from,  where  to.     Use  ivhere,  whence,  tvhither. 
whether  or  no.     Long  condemned,  but  supported  by   the  usage 

of  many  good  writers, 
with.     See  by. 

without.     Not  to  be  used  for  unless. 
young  ladies.     See  lady, 
yours,  etc.     lu  the  conclusion  of  a  letter,  etc.  is  discourteous. 


APPENDIX  B. 

EXAMPLES   OF   DEFECTIVE    COMPOSITION. 

Note. — These  examples  are  selected  from  the  actual 
work  of  students  of  composition.  They  range  from  Narra- 
tive, through  Descriptive  and  Narrative-Descriptive,  to 
Expository.  Most  of  them  are  complete  essays.  Some  are 
crude  in  the  extreme,  while  others  are  but  fair  examj^les  of 
the  poorer  grade  of  work  that  is  constantly  presented  in 
schools  and  colleges.  No.  V  might  even  seem,  at  first 
glance,  to  be  a  good  essay:  it  is  conceivable  that  a  teacher, 
dulled  by  the  reading  of  much  manuscript,  might  pass  it 
by  with  only  words  of  commendation.  But  scrutiny  reveals 
much  that  is  defective.  And  so  with  all.  Questions  and 
observations  in  criticism  are  appended  to  the  first  five 
essays.  These  should  be  studied  and  discussed  and  then 
the  essays  rewritten.  The  remaining  essays  are  to  be 
treated  in  a  similar  way — that  is,  minute  criticisms  are  first 
to  be  written  out  and  then  compared  and  discussed  in  class, 
and  finally  the  essays  are  to  be  rewritten  whenever  sufficient 
improvement  can  be  made  to  justify  the  labor.  This  will 
cultivate  the  habit  of  self-criticism. 

I.  A  Forced  Delay. 

1.  During  a  long,  hot  day  our  train  drew  up  in  front  of  a  little 
wayside  station  to  wait  for  the  north-bound  special.  The  telegraph 
operator  informed  us  that  the  coming  train  had  been  delayed  so 
with  various  exclamations  we  settled  down  to  wait. 

3.  I  saw  before  me  a  little  one-story  building  of  a  doubtful 

307 


308       APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

shade  of  brown.  Through  a  dusty,  dirty  M'indow  I  could  see  a 
man  bending  over  a  paper.  A  clock  ticked  noisily  behind  him. 
He  did  not  seem  to  be  aware  of  his  near  audience.  Some  wilted 
flowers  drooped  in  a  cracked  glass  on  the  window-sill.  The 
general  air  of  desolation  that  filled  the  interior  of  the  little  room 
spread  itself  over  the  surrounding  scenery.  It  was  only  an 
ordinary  little  station  such  as  one  sees  many  times  in  all  parts  of 
the  country.  Dry,  dusty  stretches  of  land  extended  from  each 
side.  Only  one  other  building  was  to  be  seen.  That  was  a  well- 
built  barn  that  had  finally  been  put  to  a  different  use  than  was 
originally  intended  and  was  now  a  dwelling.  How  many  men 
never  get  any  further  than  their  barns  ! 

3.  The  man  in  the  station  started  and  raised  his  head.  He 
pushed  his  paper  swiftly  aside  and  came  to  the  door.  The  train 
was  coming  at  last.  With  a  final  puff  of  importance  it  drew  up 
beside  us.  The  station  and  the  man  slowly  slid  past  me  and  we 
were  on  our  way  again. 

Criticism.  1.  During:  Precisely  used?— *S<?  .•  Zl,  Z.— Exclama- 
tions:  Substitute  a  word  indicating  the  character  of  the  exclamations 
(for  various  probably  refers  onlj'  to  differences  of  form). —  Wait :  60, 1. 

2.  Through :  Substitute  a  word  that  will  indicate  more  clearly 
whose  window  is  meant. — Noisily  :  The  description  fails  to  explain 
bow  the  clock  could  be  heard. — Audience:  Meaning  of  the  word? — 
Wilted  :  Superfluous? — Glass  :  Find  more  specific  word. — The  general 
air:  Improve  the  sentence. — Many  times:  Strike  out. — Stretches 
extended:  44,  2. — From  each  side:  Change  the  phrase. — That  .  ,  . 
that:  Improve. — Different  than  :  App.  A. 

3.  Siciftly :  'I'ry  hastily,  brusquely. 

In  rewriting,  consider  carefully  the  arrangement  of  descriptive 
details  in  ^[  2. 

II.  A  Natural  Bridge, 

1.  Memory  recalls  a  beautiful  little  scene  that  I  enjoyed  one 
summer.  It  was  one  of  the  cliffs  along  the  coast  that  had  been 
worn  by  the  water  until  it  was  the  form  of  a  bridge. 

2.  The  tide  was  low,  and  the  dry,  white  sand  allowed  a  passage- 
way under  the  arch.  The  natural  pillars  were  w^orn  in  for  a 
couple  of  feet  by  tlie  undercurrents  of  the  tide.  The  sides  were 
rough  and  full  of  hollows  which  were  doubtlessly  the  homes  of 


//.     A  NATURAL   BRIDGE.  309 

curious  little  sea  animals.  Further  up,  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
salt  water,  delicate  lavender  flowers  bloomed,  such  as  one  finds 
growing  profusely  on  the  beach.  The  wind  brought  their  delicate 
odor  down  to  me. 

3.  At  the  top  of  the  natural  bridge  I  could  distinguish  the  dizzy, 
little  path  which  I  had  followed  so  many  times.  It  led  out  to  the 
edge  of  the  bridge.  When  the  tide  was  high,  I  had  sat  here  and 
watched  the  foaming  green  mass  below.  As  the  waves  came  in, 
it  rose,  lapping  the  sides  of  the  cliff,  and  when  they  retreated  it 
poured  out  of  the  little  hollows  as  if  the  cliff  had  been  a  sponge, 
leaving  the  sides  all  dripping.  It  was  a  treacherous,  dangerous 
seat,  and  the  strong  wind  blowing  in  from  the  sea  made  one  feel 
as  if  he  might  topple  over  any  minute. 

4.  Far  out  before  me  stretched  the  green  expanse  of  ocean. 
The  waves  seemed  to  grow  larger  and  larger  as  they  burst  with  a 
roar  at  my  feet  and  were  reechoed  by  the  caverns  of  the  cliff. 

5.  The  caprices  of  the  waves  had  told  on  the  surface  of  the  cliff. 
In  places  its  foundations  were  much  worn.  I  realized  with  regret 
that  before  many  years  had  passed,  the  beautiful  natural  bridge 
would  be  only  a  shapeless  mass  of  cliff. 

Criticism.  1.  Is  it  clear  whether  a  point,  or  a  period,  of  time  is 
referred  to? — Reference  of  the  two  it'sl — How  does  "one  of  the 
cliffs  "  differ  from  "  a  cliff  "  ?  As  the  sentence  stands,  is  the  verb  had 
singular  or  plural?  Which  did  the  writer  mean  it  to  be? — The  coast: 
12,  4,  a.  —  Was  the  for) ii :  58,  1.  Is  the  description  clear?  What  is 
the  point  of  view? 

2.  Was  low:  33,  1. — Alloiced  a  passageway :  Make  more  precise. 
—  Worn  in:  Clear? — Couple:  59,  2.  Is  the  word  correctly  used 
here? — Sides:  Of  what?  —  Full:  Find  better  word. —  Curious: 
Organic?  55. — Sea  animcds  :  59,  2. — Further:  App.  A. — Bloomed: 
Try  placing  the  word  after  heuch  ;  before  delicate. — The  beach  :  What 
beach  ? — Delicate  :  60,  1. 

3.  Dizzy  :  63,  2  {Z).  —  W?iich  :  40.— Begin  the  third  sentence  with 
"Often"  to  make  it  correspond  with  the  first,  and  then  make  the 
necessary  changes  in  the  verb-forms  of  the  fourth  sentence. — He  : 
Purists  insist  on  one  (App.  A).  But  one  here  would  sound  artificial, 
and  it  would  have  the  effect  of  generalizing  more  than  the  writer 
desired  to  generalize  what  was  a  lively  personal  experience.  The 
writer  did  well  in  instinctively  throwing  rules  of  rhetoric  to  the  sea- 
winds. 


310      APPENDIX  B.-DEFECTIVE   COMPOSITION. 

4.  As:  What  does  the  writer  mean?— W<??r  reechoed:  Subject? 
Force  of  prefix  re  f 

5.  Had  pnssed :  Tense-form  ?— Note  repetition  of  cliff. 

In  rewriting,  amplify  the  first  paragraph,  which  clearly  moves  too 
rapidly  from  general  description  to  details.  Fix  more  accurately  the 
time  and  point  of  view,  getting  suggestions  for  this  from  •;  3.  In 
^  3  a  secondary  matter  is  introduced,  and  by  careful  use  of  tenses, 
as  suggested  in  our  criticism  above,  this  may  be  kept  secondary. 
But  in  1  4  the  writer  loses  himself  in  this  new  feature  of  his  descrip- 
tion. This  must  be  remedied.  Either  one  point  of  view  must  be 
kept  throughout,  or  the  change  must  be  clearly  indicated.  The 
difficulty  here  lies  in  the  writer's  assuming  to  be  below  while  he 
describes  the  top  of  the  cliff,  and  then  apparently  forgetting  that 
assumption. 

III.     A  Dance  on  the  Border. 

1.  While  on  a  surveying  trip  last  summer  in  New  Mexico,  our 
party  camped  just  over  the  Mexican  line  for  nearly  a  week.  As 
it  chanced,  the  third  day  of  this  week  was  one  of  the  many  Mexi- 
can holidays,  San  Juan's  Day,  and  was,  of  course,  to  be  cele- 
brated with  the  usual  festivities. 

2.  Old  Jose  Mara,  the  Justice  of  the  Peace  of  Palomas,  was  a 
very  big  man  in  these  arrangements,  and  to  do  justice  to  his  high 
position  gave  a  dance  at  his  palatial  "adobe."  We,  as  visiting 
gringoes,  all  received  invitations  to  the  dance,  or  baile,  and, 
although  tired  by  the  hard  work  of  the  day  and  looking  forward 
to  an  early  start  the  next  day,  we  concluded  that  it  would  not  do 
to  miss  this  haile.  So  after  disposing  of  our  beans,  we  changed 
our  handkerchiefs  and  sauntered  forth  to  conquest. 

3.  We  were  met  at  the  door  of  the  palace  by  the  host,  who 
begged  us  to  enter  and  take  possession,  which  we  did,  being  of 
an  accommodating  race  in  such  matters.  The  room  where  the 
dancers  were  to  carom  was  a  large  one  for  a  Mexican  house,  but 
not  just  up  to  an  American's  idea  of  a  ballroom.  Its  ordinary 
service  was  in  the  line  of  a  chapel,  as  might  be  seen  by  the  saint's 
pictures,  candles,  and  crosses.  It  was  about  twenty  feet  long  by 
ten  wide,  the  floor  was  baked  clay  covered  by  a  much  worn  piece 
of  canvas,  or  perhaps  I  should  say  partially  covered,  for  there 
was  room  to  catch  your  foot  around  the  edges. 


///.     A   DANCE  OX  THE  BORDER.  311 

4.  "We  found  the  ladies  lined  up  on  one  side  of  the  room  and 
the  men  on  the  other ;  the  musicians,  a  fiddler  and  a  guitarist, 
had  a  corner  to  themselves,  where  they  proceeded  unmolested  to 
draw  from  their  instruments  the  most  heart-rending  tones.  The 
favorite  tune  was  "  After  the  Ball,"  and  this  they  gave  time  after 
time  in  a  truly  wonderful  manner. 

5.  Tiie  Mexican  dance  accommodates  itself  to  the  quarters.  It 
consists  of  hopping  up  and  down  almost  in  the  same  spot,  but 
with  a  revolving  motion  to  the  right  which  puts  wheels  in  heads 
not  usually  so  accoutred.  A  very  efficient  aid  in  this  latter  proc- 
ess is  the  mescal,  which  is  served  between  the  numbers  of  the 
dance.  Tliis  is  almost  a  veritable  liquid  tire,  burning  lips,  tliroat, 
and  brain,  and  making  the  latter  hours  of  the  dance  one  con- 
tinual fight. 

6.  As  I  have  before  remarked,  we  entered.  We  came,  we  saw, 
but  alas  we  did  not  conquer.  The  Postmaster  was  there  in  all 
his  governmental  glory,  and  we  were  eclipsed.  Moreover,  we 
who  knew  how  to  dance  were  handicapped,  for  we  found  it  im- 
possible to  accommodate  our  steps  to  the  revolving  hop  of  the 
ladies,  and  the  result  was  all  kinds  of  collisions,  and  a  gasp  of 
relief  when  the  time  was  called  and  we  seated  our  partners  and 
retired  to  our  own  corners  for  the  treatment,  which  was  brought 
round  by  the  son  and  heir  of  the  great  house  of  Mara.  A  further 
disadvantage  was  that  we  found  difficulty  in  communicating  our 
thoughts  to  our  partners,  and  thus  they  remain  forever  ignorant 
of  whatever  sentiment  they  may  have  inspired  in  us. 

7.  But  the  time  passed  there  as  it  does  everywhere,  and  we 
were  at  length  permitted  to  escape  without  a  breach  of  polite- 
ness, and  availed  ourselves  of  the  opportunity. 

8.  It  was  certainly  not  an  enjoyable  function.  The  solemnity 
with  which  the  dancers  seemed  to  perform  their  parts,  the  lack 
of  conversation,  the  isolation  of  the  sexes,  were  depressing.  I 
am  glad  I  went,  but  should  I  have  another  opportunity  of  the 
kind  I  should  say  "Thanks,  I  have  seen  one."  "We  did  not  stay 
until  the  real  business  of  the  meeting  commenced,  since  we  were 
tired,  and  moreover  carried  no  life-insurance.  Our  chief  stayed 
somewhat  later  than  the  rest  of  us,  but  I  was  never  able  to  get 
out  of  him  just  what  had  happened  after  our  departure.     For  my 


312       APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

l)art  the  Mexicans  may  have  their  bailes,  their  mescal,  and  their 
quarrels, — I  want  none  of  them. 

Criticism.  1.  Is  trip  an  appropriate  word  ? — Any  better  position 
for  last  summer? — Why  not  write  "camped  for  nearly  a  week  just 
over  tlie  Mexican  line  "? 

2.  Would  important  functionary  be  a  good  substitute  for  big 
nnan  ? — To  do  justice  to :  Is  it  a  case  of  doing  justice  ?  Try  in  recog- 
nition of,  conscious  of ,  filled  with  the  dignity  of,  duly  impressed  with 
the  responsibilities  of. — Hard  icork  of  the  day:  Compress. — \s  look- 
ing forward  to  commonly  used  of  unpleasant  anticipations  ?  Does 
the  phrase  balance  well  with  tired?     Etc.,  etc. 

IV.     What  Dormitory  Life  Means  to  the  Average  Girl. 

1.  In  writing  on  this  subject  one's  standpoint  must  necessarily 
be  a  personal  one.  The  conditions  in  which  the  freshman  is 
placed  are  so  varied  that  the  general  outlook  is  consequently 
very  different.  There  are,  however,  general  good  and  evil  influ- 
ences that  affect  the  dormitory  girls  in  about  the  same  way. 

2.  The  development  of  independence  stands  fix'st  among  the 
good  effects.  The  average  girl  has  been  cared  for  so  well 
through  her  life  that  she  is  not  well  prepared  for  her  struggle  in 
the  outside  world.  Thrown  entirely  upon  her  own  resources,  the 
young  girl  after  one  scared  gasp  gradually  readjusts  her  ideas 
and  learns  to  take  care  of  herself.  One  soon  realizes  of  what 
small  consequence  they  are  in  the  world.  To  a  girl  who  has 
come  from  a  family  of  some  standing  and  who  has  always  been 
made  a  great  deal  of  at  her  home,  this  experience  is  very  valu- 
able. The  contact  with  so  many  girls  of  different  classes  is  very 
broadening  and  helps  one  to  learn  the  lesson  of  toleration. 

3.  The  bad  effects  possibly  balance  the  good  ones.  There  is 
the  loneliness  of  the  homesick  girl  to  consider.  Every  one  has 
friends  except  herself.  She  is  stared  at  and  criticised  and  made 
to  U\c\  her  strangeness.  It  may  be  good  for  her,  but  it  is  hard. 
Then  after  she  has  made  friends  she  feels  their  selfishness.  They 
have  unconsciously  learned  to  look  out  for  themselves  regardless 
of  any  one  else.  It  is  not  so  much  their  fault  as  it  is  the  spirit  of 
the  Hall.     Dormitory  life  can  do  a  great  deal  of  harm  physically. 


IV.     DORMITORY  LTFE.  313 

Food  that  is  prepared  in  such  large  quantities  is  not  often  what 
it  should  be.  The  spreads  that  are  so  enjoyable  are  ruinous  to 
the  digestion.  The  constant  visiting  among  the  girls  makes  late 
hours  necessary  for  study,  and  this  loss  of  sleep  tells  after  hard 
work  and  we  have  frequent  "breakdowns  "  as  a  result. 

4.  Every  girl  during  her  college  course  should  have  the  experi- 
ence of  dormitory  life  for  the  good  there  is  in  it,  but  let  it  be  no 
longer  than  necessary  for  that  knowledge. 

Criticism.  1.  Neccsmrily  :  44,2. — One:  Avoid  the  repetition  of 
this  word. — The  freshman  :  Why  is  the  used  ?  Is  it  not  ambiguous  ? 
— General  outlook:  Clesivt—Consequeuily:  Superfluous  ?—Ge7ie?'ai  ; 
What  objection  to  the  word  here  ? 

2.  The  :  This  use  of  the  article  may  be  noticed  often  in  these 
themes.  It  reads  awkwardly,  betraying  the  inexperiei>ced  writer. 
See  42  and  40.  See  also  the  criticism  of  1  3  of  "  Early  Education." 
— Rearrange  the  parts  of  this  sentence. — Average  :  This  use  of  the 
word  is  sometimes  criticised,  but  it  is  difficult  to  find  another  word. 
—  Well :  Repeated.  —  Thrown  :  The  sentence  moves  rapidly  toward  a 
somewhat  unexpected  conclusion.  Prepare  the  reader  by  making 
two  sentences  of  it  and  supplying  proper  connectives. — One  .  .  . 
tJiey  :  Very  loose. — Small:  Is  not  little  more  idiomatic  ? — Made  .  .  . 
of:  Express  more  elegantly.  —  So :  42.  —  Note  the  excessive  use 
of  very. 

3.  Ones:  App.  A. — To  consider:  Vague. — Strangeness:  Obscure. 
— Then  after:  Expand  the  sentence. — The  spirit:  Construction? — 
Dormitory  life  :  Some  connective  is  needed  to  indicate  the  transition 
of  thought. — Sach :  Cp.  so  above. — Ifot  what  it  should  be :  A  Aveak 
euphemism. — The  spreads:  Once  more  the  article  is  unsatisfactory. 
It  takes  uncertain  ground  between  the  generic  and  the  specific. 
Better  amplify,  explaining  "spreads."  So  also  in  next  sentence. — 
Visiting  among:  Something  omitted.— This :  Reference  ?  — Para- 
graph ends  in  a  slovenly  manner. 

4.  Reference  of  it  .  .  .  it?— That  knowledge:  Some  confusion  of 
thought  heve—knoidedge  points  back  to  experience  rather  than  to 
good. 

Note  that  the  essay  is  fairly  well  organized.  Its  conspicuous 
faults  are  (1)  loose  and  inadequate  expression,  and  (2)  incoherence. 
The  second  fault  is  most  marked  in  'I  3. 


314      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 


V.    Early  Education. 

1.  The  little  education  with  which  our  forefathers  were  blessed, 
was  obtained  under  circumstances  so  vastly  inferior  to  what  we 
now  enjoy  that  it  is  difficult  to  realize  the  state  of  affairs  in  those 
days. 

2.  For  many  years  after  the  first  settlements  in  North  America 
the  people  were  so  completely  absorbed  in  fighting  Indians, 
building  homes,  clearing  the  land,  and  managing  to  exist,  that 
there  was  no  time  for  thinking  of  education.  The  first  indication 
we  have  of  any  public  interest  being  taken  in  the  matter  was  in 
1677.  At  that  time  Connecticut  voted  six  hundred  acres  of  land 
to  each  of  the  four  counties  for  the  support  of  schools  in  the 
county  towns.  From  this  time  until  the  present  day  there  has 
been  a  continual  advancement  in  the  cause.  Gradually  the  people 
were  brought  to  realize  the  importance  of  public  schools  and  the 
necessity  of  public  aid.  As  early  as  1785  provision  was  made  for 
the  setting  aside  of  one  section  in  every  township  for  school 
purposes.  This  has  now  been  extended  to  two  sections  with  an 
additional  allowance  of  two  townships  for  the  support  of  a  uni- 
versity. Tliere  have  been  various  other  land  grants  made  for 
special  schools,  and  asylums,  etc.,  besides  substantial  money 
gifts. 

3.  Even  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  schools 
were  very  deficient.  There  was  a  general  lack  of  state  organiza- 
tion for  the  control  and  management  of  school  lands  and  school 
funds,  and  much  was  lost  through  mismanagement.  In  the 
district  the  same  trouble  was  experienced  ;  there  the  schools  were 
under  the  supervision  of  a  self-appointed  committee  who  knew 
little  or  nothing  of  such  affairs.  Certificates  were  not  required  of 
the  teachers,  and  in  many  cases  an  ability  to  spell  correctly 
every  difficult  geographical  name  known  was  the  only  requisite. 
As  a  consequence  many  worthless  teachers  were  employed.  Some 
of  the  ambitious  college  students  often  spent  the  winter  vacation 
in  teaching  in  some  country  districts,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  they 
were  an  improvement  on  the  common  teacher. 

4.  The  state  aid  was  by  no  means  sufficient  to  maintain   a 


V.    EARLY  EDUCATION.  315 

school,  and  so  local  taxes,  subscriptions,  and  rate-bills  were 
resoi'ted  to.  These  means  caused  much  trouble  for  tlie  one  who 
subscribed  the  most  usually  claimed  most  control  and  then  if 
there  was  any  financial  trouble  in  the  country  the  school-tax  was 
immediately  withdrawn  and  often  the  school  would  remain  closed 
for  a  year  at  a  time. 

5.  In  equipment  the  schoolhouse  was  a  wonder.  Usually  con- 
structed of  logs,  it  possessed  no  outward  attractiveness  and  the 
interior  still  less.  It  was  invariably  built  on  the  crossroads  and 
the  school  was  disturbed  by  all  the  confusion  of  travel.  They 
were  poorly  lighted  and  poorly  heated.  In  many  of  them  a  huge 
fireplace  occupied  the  entire  end  of  the  room  ;  the  wood  was 
usually  supplied  by  the  pupils,  each  one  bringing  his  share  on  a 
certain  day.  If  that  pupil  failed  to  attend  that  day,  school  had 
to  be  dismissed.  Then  the  parents  often  took  this  means  of  dis- 
posing of  all  their  green  wood  and  so  the  children  suffered  from 
smoke  and  cold.  Neither  was  there  any  provision  made  for 
ventilation  ;  in  the  times  of  the  fireplace  the  air  escaped  by 
means  of  the  chimney. 

6.  Another  evil  from  which  they  had  to  suffer  was  the  uncom- 
fortable desks  or  benches.  There  were  numerous  methods  in 
arranging  the  seats  ;  in  some  schoolhouses  the  desks  were  fastened 
to  the  walls  and  the  children  sat  on  benches  facing  outwards  ;  in 
others  the  order  was  reversed  and  the  seats  were  against  the  wall 
so  that  they  faced  the  centre.  The  teaclier's  desk  usually  stood 
in  the  centre,  around  which  was  placed  benches  for  the  little 
ones,  just  high  enough  to  prevent  their  feet  from  touching  the 
floor. 

Criticism. — 1.  Vastly  ;  See  dictionary. — To  wJuit :  Elegant?  If 
we  change  iohat  to  those,  what  further  change  must  be  made? — 
Those  days  :  Reference  ? 

2.  Settlements :  Is  the  verbal  force  felt  strongly  enough  to  warrant 
the  ellipsis  of  were  made  ? — For  thinking  of  education :  Express 
more  precisely. — Managing  to  exist:  Precise  enough?  As  loosely 
expressed  here,  it  does  not  add  a  wholly  new  idea  :  the  struggle  for 
existence  in  a  broad  sense  is  implied  in  fighting  Indians,  etc.  If  it 
be  intended  as  a  sort  of  summary,  and  not  as  an  additional  idea, 
something  in  the  language  or  form  should  indicate  this  intention. — 


31C)      APPENDIX  B. -DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

Have:  Find  a  better  word. — Being  taken:  Necessary  ? — Indication 
teas  ill  1677 :  Is  this  a  neat  expression  ?  Many  a  phrase,  when 
reduced  thus  to  its  simplest  terms,  betrays  its  weakness. — At  that 
time  :  1677  is  specific,  time  is  general  ;  try  in  that  year. — The  four 
counties  :  What  four  counties  ? — This  time  :  Any  reason  for  changing 
from  that  time  to  this  time? — The  cause:  Explicit  enough? — Were 
hrought:  Tense? — This:  What  does  the  reader  naturally  refer  it  to 
at  first  ?  See  43,  2.  Does  the  statement  apply  to  Connecticut  only  ? 
If  these  statements  do  not  apply  to  Connecticut,  that  sentence  should 
have  been  subordinate. — There  have  been  made:  Recast. — Besides 
money  gifts :  Express  less  crudely. 

3.  In  the  beginning:  Compare  at  the  beginning. — Much:  Much 
whaXl—Such  affairs  :  What  affairs? — The  ambitious  college  students: 
Why  tJie?  If  we  strike  out  the,  some  of\s  not  needed.  For  this  use 
of  the,  compare  the  ambitious  student,  the  conscientious  workman,  the 
habitual  drunkard.  The  used  thus  with  a  singular  has  the  effect  of 
distinguishing  one  class  from  another,  and,  in  so  classifying,  it  has 
a  collective  or  partially  pluralizing  effect.  The  use  of  it  with  the 
plural  grows  out  of  confusion.  It  is  used  with  the  plural  however 
when  it  is  intended  to  distinguish  one  class  of  some  particular  body. 
If  we  have  some  particular  college  in  mind,  we  may  speak  of  the 
ambitious  students  of  that  college.  So  always,  when  there  is  further 
definition,  as  "the  boys  on  the  field  who  wore  black  sweaters"  = 
"  the  black-sweater  boys  ";  but  note  that  a  particular  crowd  of  boys 
is  had  in  mind.  So  "in  the  college  of  fifty  years  ago,"  but  "in 
colleges  fifty  years  ago."  Compare  42.— //i  teaching  in:  Improve. — 
Some  districts.  (Note  repetition  of  some.)  Omit  some,  or  write  dis- 
trict.— An  improvement  on  :  Does  the  humorous  intention  justify  the 
inelegance  of  the  phrase  ? 

4.  A  school:  The  schools? — These  means:  What,  in  strictness, 
caused  the  trouble?  Note,  too,  repetition  of  means. — For:  Ambig- 
uous for  a  moment;  63,  3  (2). — IVie  most  usually:  Awkward  and 
ambiguous. — And  then  :  Exact  force  not  clear. 

5.  A  iconder  :  Compare  an  improvement  on. — The  interior  still  less: 
Balance  ? — Confusion  :  Where  was  the  confusion — in  the  travel,  or 
in  the  effects  of  the  travel  on  the  school  ? — They :  Keference  ? — Then: 
Somewhat  looss. — This  means:  Reference  V—/n  the  times  of  the  fire- 
place :  Different  from,  or  the  same  as,  the  time  described  in  the 
other  portions  of  the  paragraph  ?  If  the  same,  the  thought-relation 
is  obscure,  for  we  are  told  here  that  there  was  ventilation,  although 
perhaps  no  special  provision  for  it  was  made. 


VI.    EXPLORING  A   CAVE.  3l7 

6.  They:  Reference? — In  arranging:  Preposition? — Outwards: 
Obscure.  —  They:  Antecedent?  —  Around  ichich  :  The  statement 
wliich  follows  liardly  gives  a  characteristic  of  the  teacher's  desk — it 
simply  adds  something  that  is  closely  connected  ;  therefore  write  a7id 
around  it. —  Was:  Grammatical  concord? — Just  high  enough  to  pre- 
vent: If  the  state  of  affairs  here  described  was  accidental,  the  phrase 
should  be  "  commonly  too  high  to  allow,"  etc.  As  the  phrase  stands, 
it  implies  purpose,  and  we  are  made  to  wonder  whether  the  benches 
were  thus  constructed  as  a  precaution  against  unnecessary  noise. 
The  addition  of  "just"  indicates  an  almost  diabolic  ingenuity  that 
could  inflict  this  Tantalus-like  torture  upon  the  innocent.  No  doubt 
the  phrase  was  intended  to  be  half-satirically  humorous.  But  if  the 
state  of  affairs  was  due  to  ignorance  only,  satire  is  uncalled  for. 
And  the  writer  should  forego  humor  rather  than  leave  the  statement 
obscure.  The  matter  is  one  of  much  interest  and  we  have  a  right  to 
demand  exact  information. 

Does  the  title  fit  ?     Is  it  wholly  clear  ? 


VI.     Exploring  a  Cave. 

1.  As  soon  as  we  had  finished  our  lunch  we  jumped  down  into 
the  pit  and  then,  stooping  a  little,  eutei'ed  the  cave  through  its 
long,  low  mouth.  The  boys  lighted  the  way  with  candles,  as  it 
was  quite  dark  inside  of  the  cave.  We  went  straight  down  an 
inclined  walk  of  lime  rock.  It  was  quite  damp  and  there  was  a 
constant  dripping  of  water.  The  floor  of  the  cave  seemed  quite 
smooth  and  rather  slippery — but  tlie  roof  was  covered  with  stalac- 
tites. 

2.  We  went  down  the  passage  for  some  moments  and  then  it 
broadened  into  quite  a  room.  We  could  stand  and  walk  about 
comfortably.  The  boys  showed  us  a  narrow  hole  wliich  they  said 
opened  into  a  long  passage  which  ended  in  a  large  room,  but  they 
did  not  think  that  it  would  be  wise  for  us  to  explore  these  deeper 
recesses  as  it  was  necessary  to  crawl  for  some  distance. 

3.  On  the  other  side  of  the  room  there  was  a  larger  hole.  We 
all  crawled  through  that  one  and  then  worked  our  way  along,  on 
our  hands  and  knees,  up  over  a  large  slab  of  lime  rock.  Beyond 
that  rock  there  was  a  small  lake  of  water.  It  looked  very  dark 
and  quiet.     We  were  now  at  the  end  of  the  cave  and  were  many 


318      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

feet  from  the  light  of  the  sun.  The  boys  wished  to  make  a  little 
diversion  and  so  blew  out  the  candles  and  then  began  to  inquire 
for  matches.  It  was  pitch  dark  and  the  girls,  fearing  that  the 
boys  were  not  fooling  this  time,  became  quite  frightened.  After 
the  boys  had  gained  sufficient  enjoyment  from  their  prank,  they 
lighted  the  candles  again,  "We  then  made  our  way  back  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave.  We  picked  off  some  of  the  stalactites  for 
souvenirs.  They  looked  like  water-colored,  almost  transparent 
hard  stones. 


VII.     My  Vacation. 

1.  For  many  weeks  I  had  been  anxiously  watching  the  approach 
of  our  recent  mid-semester  vacation  and  all  the  time  busily 
engaged  in  planning  how  I  should  spend  it.  Of  course  many 
pleasant  ways  presented  themselves  and  the  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  determining  which  one,  or  ones,  should  be  adopted. 
The  only  unpleasant  part  in  the  anticipation,  and  I  might  add  in 
the  realization,  of  the  vacation  was  the  impossibility  of  being  able 
to  spend  it  at  home.  This  feeling  was  of  course  heightened  upon 
seeing  numberless  students  starting  for  home  with  happy  faces, 
conscious  of  a  warm  welcome  and  a  happy  week. 

2.  However,  the  homesick  feeling,  which  for  a  time  possessed 
me,  was  soon  conquered  and  I  set  about  making  arrangements 
for  the  carrying  out  of  my  own  little  scheme  which  was,  indeed, 
not  a  poor  substitute  for  going  home.  Nothing  could  have  come 
any  nearer  to  that  than  was  the  pleasure  of  spending  the  week 
with  a  dear  aunt  and  cousins  in  Waterford.  True,  it  was  not  far 
enough  away  to  be  much  of  a  change  in  either  climate  or  scenery, 
but  nevertheless  it  was  a  complete  rest. 

3.  I  had  often  wanted  to  ride  down  to  Waterford  on  my  wheel 
so  made  up  my  mind  that  I  would  go  that  way.  I  persuaded  a 
friend  to  accompany  me  and  we  started  from  Milton  one  afternoon 
about  two  o'clock,  reaching  Waterford  two  hours  later.  The  roads 
were  in  excellent  condition  and  the  wind  was  in  our  favor  so  we 
had  no  difficulty  in  riding. 

4.  The  week  was  quietly  spent  in  visiting  and  driving  through 
the  surrounding  country,  interspersed  with  a  little  study.     All  of 


IX.    PLACER  COUNTY.  310 

this  was  very  enjoyable  and  I  came  back  to  my  work  ready  to 
take  it  up  again  with  renewed  interest. 


VIII.     My  First  Near  View  of  an  Angleworm. 

Of  all  the  number  of  times  that  I  have  tormented  angleworms 
with  fishhooks,  it  never  crossed  my  mind  that  the  angleworm  was 
very  fine  in  its  structure.  It  seems  now  doubly  strange  to  me 
that  I  never  wondered  over  the  inside  of  a  worm,  for  I  never  see 
a  frog,  fi-sb,  bird,  rat,  or  insect  without  thinking  of  their  make-up. 
Perhaps  it  was  the  thought  of  future  fish  or  the  excitement  of  the 
fishing  that  made  me  disregard  the  worm's  insides,  yet  never- 
theless, I  did  do  that  very  thing  till  Professor  Lamson  handed  me 
a  pale  pickled  worm  to  cut  up  and  draw  pictures  of.  I  did  not 
exactly  know  how  to  begin,  so  I  got  a  book  down  from  the  shelves 
which  told  all  about  the  worm,  much  more,  in  fact,  than  I  was 
able  to  discover  at  once.  After  mucli  reflection  I  decided  upon 
the  bade  of  tlie  worm.  With  that,  I  bound  the  worm  down  in  his 
natural  position  and  made  a  long  cut  down  the  back.  It  was  an 
awakening  to  see  the  beautiful  arrangement  of  the  inside.  There 
was  a  tube  in  the  worm  which  was  supported  at  short  intervals 
by  partitions.  The  structure  reminded  me  of  the  hub  of  a  wheel, 
held  in  place  by  a  solid  sheet  of  wood  instead  of  spokes.  Here 
and  there  I  could  see  or  thought  I  could  see  a  blood  vessel  or  cord 
of  some  kind.  The  blood  seemed  to  be  white  and  there  was  no 
backbone,  yet  none  of  these  things  seemed  so  strange  to  me  as  the 
fact  that  I  had  never  before  thought  of  the  worm  in  any  deeper 
way  than  bait. 


IX.     Placer  County. 

1.  Placer  County  is  located  in  the  east-central  part  of  the  State 
of  California.  It  comprises  about  600  square  miles  of  territory. 
The  western  boundary  begins  about  130  miles  northwest  of  San 
Francisco  and  extends  to  Lake  Tahoe  and  the  Nevada  state  line 
on  the  east.  The  width  of  the  county  from  east  to  west  is  30 
miles,  and  the  average  breadth  is  20  miles. 


320      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

2.  The  territory  of  the  county  is  for  the  most  part  rolling  hills, 
covered  with  pine,  oak,  and  redwood  trees.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  including  clay,  adobe,  lime,  and  broken  rock 
formation.  The  climate  is,  on  the  whole,  mild  and  even.  Snow 
rarely  falls  except  in  the  few  higher  parts  of  the  county.  In  the 
summer  the  air  is  warm  and  clear.  The  average  temperature 
during  the  year  is  about  76°  Fahrenheit.  The  average  rainfall  is 
about  33  inches  yearly. 

3.  At  first  the  main  occupation  of  Placer  County  was,  as  its 
name  suggests,  placer  mining.  The  emigrants  who  came  to  Cali- 
fornia in  1849  or  '50  came,  for  the  most  part,  through  Placer 
County.  Some  stopped  here,  and  it  was  in  this  county  that  the 
first  important  find  of  gold  was  made  in  California.  Great 
ravines  may  be  seen  to-day  in  different  localities  of  the  county, 
evidences  of  the  powerful  water  stream  used  to  unearth  the  yel- 
low metal.  Old  ruined  foundations  mark  the  place  where  twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago  two  or  three  thousand  men  were  living,  busily 
engaged  in  mining. 

4.  Placer  mining  is  practically  not  indulged  in  at  all  *at  the 
present  time,  being,  as  it  were,  a  sort  of  prehistoric  age  in  the 
history  of  Placer  County.  Nor  is  any  mining  carried  on  to  any 
great  extent  at  the  present  day.  It  is  true  that  daily  some  men 
can  be  seen  by  the  side  of  the  streams  with  their  shovels  and 
rockers,  working  from  morning  till  night,  for  which  they  receive 
subsistence  and  hopes  of  a  big  find. 

5.  Placer  County  has  many  advantages  for  fruit-raising,  and 
this  industry  seems  to  have  grown  to  be  the  most  important  one 
of  the  county.  The  soil  and  climate  are  favorable  for  the  orange, 
lemon,  cherry,  peach,  apple,  pear,  prune,  plum,  olive,  walnut, 
etc.,  etc.  Besides  the  soil  being  favorable  the  fruit  growers  of 
the  county  have  a  much  greater  advantage,  and  that  is,  Ihey  are 
conveniently  situated  on  an  eastern  railroad.  They  are  so  situ- 
ated that  their  fruits  are  able  to  be  handled  by  Eastern  markets 
almost  a  day  ahead  of  the  fruits  of  any  other  section  of  Cali- 
fornia. This  is  a  great  advantage,  both  on  account  of  the  perish- 
ability of  the  article  and  also  it  enables  the  fruit  to  receive  all 
the  advantages  which  are  offered  to  that  which  first  appears  in 
the  market. 

6.  The  fruits  most  favored  by   the  growers  are   the  orange, 


IX.     PLACER  COUNTY.  321 

peach,  and  olive.  Great  fortunes  were  made  by  orange  growers 
in  Southern  California  by  their  fruit  being  introduced  into  the 
East.  It  became  widely  ard  favorably  known  and  grew  to  have 
a  large  and  steady  demand.  This  caused  the  growers  of  Placer 
County  to  try  to  grow  the  orange,  and  so  great  was  their  success 
in  producing  oranges  of  as  large  a  size  and  fine  a  flavor  as  those 
of  their  southern  rivals,  that  large  tracts  were  set  out  in  orange 
trees. 

7.  The  peach  is  the  most  popular  fruit  raised.  A  peach  orchard 
is  comparatively  inexpensive  to  start,  and  also  the  time  between 
the  start  and  the  bearing  point  is  short,  being  about  two  years. 
The  peaches  of  the  county  have  already  made  a  name  for  them- 
selves in  the  East  for  their  size  and  flavor. 

8.  Olive  raising  is  a  very  paying  business,  but  is  entered  into 
only  by  those  who  have  a  large  capital  outlay,  for  it  takes  about 
six  years  before  the  trees  bear.  The  territory  devoted  to  olives 
is  mostly  side-hills  where  it  is  too  steep  or  too  rocky  for  other 
trees. 

9.  The  other  kinds  of  fruit  are  raised  to  a  considerable  extent 
botli  for  the  county's  use  and  also  for  exportation.  The  exporta- 
tion is  handled  by  large  and  reliable  shipping  firms  who  either 
buy  tlie  fruit  upon  the  spot  or  ship  it  to  its  destination  upon  the 
owner's  risk,  the  shipping  company  acting  as  commission  agent. 

10.  Besides  fruit-raising  the  county  has  a  large  pottery  factory 
in  its  southeastern  part,  near  the  town  of  Lincoln.  The  clay  is 
taken  out  of  a  hill  near  by  and  the  fuel  brought  fi-om  the  sur- 
rounding territory.  The  product  is  shipped  to  San  Francisco. 
Tlie  factory  represents  quite  an  output  of  capital  and  is  run  the 
year  round.     M.  and  Co.  of  San  Francisco  are  the  owners. 

11.  Although  the  hills  are  covered  with  trees,  the  lumber  ])usi- 
ness  is  engaged  in  only  to  a  small  extent.  It  takes  a  great  deal 
of  wood  to  supply  the  pottery  factory,  and  some  of  the  towns 
have  lumber  yards  and  small  mills.  As  a  general  rule  not  much 
lumber  leaves  the  county. 

12.  The  towns  are  far  apart  and  most  of  them  consist  of  only  a 
hotel,  saloon,  grocery,  blacksmith,  and  fruit  shipper.  Auburn, 
tlie  county  seat,  is  a  beautiful  town  situated  about  33  miles  from 
Sacramento.  It  is  situated  on  the  Ogden  and  the  East  Kailroad. 
The  town  has  about  two  thousand  inhabitants,  and  its  buildings 


322       APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE   COMPOSITION. 

include  many  beautiful  residences.  It  is  built  upon  a  hill  and 
commands  a  beautiful  view  of  the  streams,  orchards,  and  forests 
which  surround  it.  The  town  has  two  very  creditable  hotels 
which  are  mostly  supported  by  the  invalid  visitors.  These  visitors 
are  attracted  to  the  place  on  account  of  its  even  climate  and 
healthful  air. 

13.  Another  town  worthy  of  note  is  New  Castle,  which  does  an 
enormous  business  althougli  it  consists  of  a  hotel,  two  saloons, 
two  blacksmiths,  two  grocers,  one  lumber  yard,  one  drug  store, 
one  coroner,  one  church,  and  four  fruit  packing  houses.  During 
the  fruit  season,  from  May  to  September,  three  cars  of  fruit  are 
shipped  daily  for  the  East.  The  average  for  the  year  is  two  car- 
loads of  fruit  a  day. 

14.  The  county  is  thinly  populated.  The  roads  are  the  ordinary 
dirt  roads,  dusty  in  summer  and  muddy,  even  boggy  in  some 
places,  in  winter.  The  county  is  well  supplied  as  regards  the 
number  of  roads.  Most  of  the  county  is  under  irrigation,  and 
irrigation  ditches  are  well  distributed  over  the  territory.  The 
water  for  irrigation  is  obtained  from  the  head  waters  of  the 
streams.  Private  companies  own  and  operate  the  irrigating 
ditches,  from  which  water  is  drawn  by  the  orchardists  for  a  fixed 
compensation.  The  financial  condition  of  Placer  County  is 
sound.  Thus  Placer  County  stands  to-day  as  an  example  of  a 
young,  energetic,  and  rising  county,  which  has  forsaken  the 
speculative  business  of  mining  and  settled  down  to  the  old, 
standard  occupation  of  agriculture. 


X.     Life  in  the  "  Lab." 

The  "lab"  is  a  long  room  with  windows  arranged  closely 
together  along  one  side  and  at  the  two  ends.  A  great  many 
tables  are  placed  crosswise  and  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  large 
dining-room.  The  seats  for  the  students  are  all  around  these 
tables  and  each  worker  has  his  private  drawer.  The  sink  is  at 
one  end  of  the  room  and  the  material  to  work  with  is  conven- 
iently placed  at  the  two  extreme  ends. 

Students  are  divided  into  two  kinds,  the  workers  and  the  non- 
workers,  "those  who  look  in  the  microscope  and  those  who  look 


X     LIFE  IN  THE  "LAB."  323 

over  it."  The  workers  find  their  work  interesting  and  all- 
engrossing,  consequently  they  are  quiet  and  one  sees  only  the 
bowed  head  and  hears  the  scratch  of  their  pencil  as  they  perfect 
those  works  of  art  called  drawings.  The  quantity  of  material 
needed  by  the  non-workers  is  astonishing.  One  sees  quite  a 
little  cluster  of  friends  having  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  in  finding 
exactly  what  they  want.  Then  the  rests  between  the  bells  which 
are  supposed  to  last  only  five  minutes  are  often  prolonged  to  half 
an  hour.  These  people  assure  us  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  fun 
in  the  "lab." 

I  have  never  clearly  understood  exactly  how  many  instructors 
we  were  supposed  to  have.  At  first  I  thouglit  we  had  four,  but 
now  one  stays  in  his  office,  one  lives  in  the  city,  one  lectures  at 
distant  places  and  one  talks  only  to  the  pretty  girls  so  it  ap- 
pears to  us  as  if  we  only  had  one  but  that  one  is  equal  to  several 
ordinary  instructors.  She  has  her  favorites  and  shows  them 
favor  by  giving  them  extra  work  to  do.  The  glory  of  it  over- 
balances the  little  trouble.  These  experiments  remind  me  of  the 
days  when  I  went  to  school  and  when  I  felt  very  proud  because  I 
was  allowed  to  dust  off  the  boards  for  the  teacher.  One  can 
easily  tell  that  I  am  not  one  of  the  favored  ones  now. 

The  work  has  been  mostly  microscopic.  It  has  opened  up  a 
new  world  to  me.  I  have  become  acquainted  with  strange  ani- 
mals such  as  I  had  never  conceived  of.  It  is  like  a  fairy  story 
where  the  many-armed  monster  stretches  out  his  arms  and 
catches  the  unwary  ones  and  where  bells  are  alive  and  swing 
back  and  forth  on  long  handles  and  where  monstrous  sea  ser- 
pents come  slashing  through  the  water  killing  and  wounding  all 
that  come  in  their  way. 

There  is  the  unpleasant  side  to  "lab"  life  when  one  has  to 
study  for  examinations  and  quizzes  and  then  finally  has  to  spend 
a  whole  afternoon  writing  and  writing  till  one's  fingers  are  stiff 
and  one's  back  is  sore.  Then  come  the  quizzes  which  are  hardly 
worse  than  the  rack  of  torture  in  the  olden  times.  The  victim 
sits  calmly  in  his  seat  while  chills  and  fever  alternately  "pervade 
his  being."  Finally  his  turn  comes  and  all  of  his  store  of 
knowledge  flies  away  and  leaves  him  dumb. 

The  drawings  are  a  feature  in  the  "lab"  work.  Some  of 
them  portray  objects  never  seen  by  the  head  of  the  department. 


32-i      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

Some  of  the  lights  and  shades  are  alarming  and  one  ■wonders 
what  was  the  matter  with  the  reflector.  These  drawings  are  to 
be  used  for  future  reference. 


XI.     Isinglass. 

1.  Isinglass  is  made  from  the  swimming  bladders  of  fishes. 
These  bladders  vary  in  shape  according  to  the  variety  of  fish 
from  which  they  are  taken,  and  are  prepared  for  the  market  in 
various  ways.  Some  are  simply  dried  while  slightly  distended, 
forming  what  is  called  "  pipe  isinglass."  When  there  are  natural 
openings  in  these,  they  are  often  named  "pursers."  Again 
when  the  swimming  bladders  are  slit  open,  flattened,  and  dried, 
they  are  known  as  "  leaf-isinglass." 

2.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  value  of  a  sample  is  deter- 
mined by  the  amount  of  impurities  present.  These  impurities 
are  ordinary  dirt,  mucus,  w'hich  is  naturally  present  inside  the 
bladder,  and  blood  stains.  If  bladders  could  be  hung  ujj  to  dry 
with  the  orifice  downward,  the  mucus  would  be  drained  off  ;  but 
usually  fishermen  fear  the  reduction  in  weight  and  take  care  to 
retain  all  they  possibly  can.  If  the  dealers  would  insist  upon 
having  the  bladders  slit  open  and  rinsed  as  soon  as  they  are 
removed  from  the  fish,  the  quality  would  be  much  improved. 
This  would  also  increase  the  value  of  the  product  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  extra  labor  would  be  very  profitable.  Blood 
stains  cannot  be  removed.  If  any  process  could  be  devised  for 
this  purpose  a  valuable  discovery  would  be  made. 

3.  The  uses  of  isinglass  are  not  numerous.  The  largest  quan- 
tity  is  used  by  brewers  and  wine  merchants  for  clarifying  their 
liquors.  This  clarifying  property  in  isinglass  is  extraordinary, 
for  gelatine,  which  seems  chemically  the  same  as  isinglass,  does 
not  possess  it.  For  clarifying  purpo.ses  the  isinglass  is  "cut"  or 
dissolved  in  acid,  sulphuric  being  preferred  by  brewers  for  it 
tends  to  preserve  the  beer.  When  the  mixture  is  reduced  to  the 
riglit  consistency,  about  a  tablespoonful  is  placed  in  each  cask  of 
beer  before  sending  it  out  for  consumption. 

4.  The  process  of  cutting  isinglass  is  very  interesting.  The 
raw  product  is  very  hard  and  brittle  and  difficult  to  manipulate. 


XII.     A    WEALTH  OF  BEAUTY.  325 

It  is  first  soaked  until  it  becomes  pliable  and  then  trimmed.  It 
is  then  pressed  by  hand  on  a  board  with  a  rounded  surface, 
which  smooths  and  slightly  flattens  the  isinglass.  Next  comes 
the  rolling.  Very  hard  steel  rollers  are  used,  which  are  accu- 
rately adjusted  and  capable  of  exerting  a  pressure  of  one  hun- 
dred tons.  Two  sets  are  employed;  the  first  to  bring  the  isinglass 
to  a  uniform  thickness,  and  the  second,  kept  cool  by  running 
water,  to  reduce  it  to  the  thickness  of  common  writing  paper. 
From  the  last  rollers  it  comes  in  a  transparent  ribbon,  many 
yards  to  the  pound  and  "shot  "like  watered  silk.  It  is  now 
hung  up  in  a  separate  room,  the  drying  also  being  an  operation 
of  considerable  nicety.  When  sufficiently  dried  it  is  ready  for 
the  market  and  it  is  then  stored  until  needed. 

XII.    A  "Wealth  of  Beauty. 

1.  To  many,  animal  life  is  chiefly  impressive  on  account  of  its 
beauty.  We  find  this  beauty  usually  lies  in  the  form,  color,  or 
the  movements  of  animals.  Especially  in  the  simplest  animals 
the  beauty  of  form  is  often  comparable  to  that  of  a  crystal;  wit- 
ness the  marvellous  arcliitecture  in  flint  and  lime  of  the  marine 
Protozoa,  whose  empty  shells  form  the  ooze  of  the  great  depths. 

2.  In  higher  animals  also  an  almost  crystalline  exactness  of 
symmetry  is  often  apparent,  but  we  find  more  frequent  illustra- 
tions of  graceful  curves  in  form  and  feature,  resulting  in  part 
from  strenuous  and  healthful  exercise,  which  molds  the  body 
into  beauty. 

3.  Not  a  little  of  the  color  of  animals  is  due  to  the  iridescent 
nature  of  the  skin — notice  the  flash  of  rainbow  tints  from  the 
skin  of  the  lovely  earthworm,  or  the  rapid  change  of  color  in  the 
tree-toad.  As  to  the  movement,  how  much  there  is  to  admire  ; 
the  birds  soaring,  hovering,  gliding,  and  diving;  the  bats' arbitrary 
evolutions  ;  the  dolphins  gamboling  in  the  waves;  the  little  lizards 
which  flash  across  the  path  and  are  gone,  the  snake  "flowing 
like  a  silver  river";  the  swimming  of  fish,  and  the  butterflies 
flitting  like  sunbeams  among  the  flowers. 

4.  The  only  ugly  animals  are  the  products  of  domestication 
and  human  interference  on  the  one  hand,  or  of  disease  on  the 
other.     The  ugliest  things  are  what  may  be  called  the  excretions 


326      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOSITION. 

of  civilization,  which  are  productions  by  which  the  hues  and 
colors  of  nature  have  been  destroyed  or  smothered,  where  the 
natural  harmony  has  been  forcibly  put  out  of  tune— in  short, 
where  a  vicious  taste  has  insisted  on  becoming  inventive. 

XIII.    The  Chinaman  as  Found  in  the  United  States. 

1.  The  building  of  the  trans-continental  railways  and  the  con- 
sequent demand  for  cheap  labor,  gave  the  first  impetus  to  Chinese 
immigration  to  America.  As  most  of  them  came  by  the  way  of 
San  Francisco,  naturally  the  greatest  Chinese  population  is  found 
upon  the  Pacific  Coast,  especially  in  California.  After  the  rail- 
ways were  completed,  they  spread  into  almost  all  of  the  industries 
of  the  white  population. 

2.  As  agriculture  requires  the  least  skill,  a  great  many  went 
into  that  occupation.  As  the  majority  of  Chinamen  are  quick  to 
learn,  they  soon  find  out  that  they  can  make  more  money  either 
by  leasing  land  for  themselves  or  else  going  into  some  other 
employment.  Perhaps  he  moves  into  a  town  or  city  and  there 
enters  into  a  lighter  employment  than  working  on  a  ranch. 
Going  into  a  hotel  as  dish-washer,  he  soon  comes  out  as  a  first 
class  cook  ;  this  rise  being  due  to  keen  perception  of  all  that  goes 
on  about  him.  Or  perhaps  he  goes  into  partnership  in  the 
laundry  business  with  his  inevitable  cousin  ;  at  any  rate,  what- 
ever he  does  he  is  always  looking  for  something  better,  in  order 
that  he  may  save  enough  money  to  return  to  China,  and  live  in 
luxury  for  the  remainder  of  his  days. 

3.  In  whatever  business  the  Chinese  enters,  he  is  satisfied  with 
small  profits  ;  and  as  he  can  live  so  much  cheaper  than  a  white 
man,  the  latter  is  at  a  disadvantage  whenever  in  competition 
with  him.  The  one  staple  article  of  food  upon  which  the  China- 
man subsists  is  rice.  With  a  pot  of  rice,  a  cup  of  tea,  and  a 
small  dish  of  vegetables,  the  Chinaman  will  perform  the  hardest 
kind  of  labor  and  be  contented. 

4.  The  camp  of  a  gang  of  Chinese  laborers  is  a  sight  well 
worth  seeing.  It  is  usually  a  small  building  made  of  shakes  or 
rough  boards  hastily  put  together.  This  is  the  bunk-house  and 
living-room  for  all  in  the  camp.  Off  at  one  side  is  a  small  build- 
ing of  the  same  material,  which  is  the  cook-house  and  dining- 


XIII.     THE  CHINAMAN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.   327 

room.  They  use  no  stuve.  A  few  bricks  laid  iu  mud  so  tliat  a 
round  kettle  may  be  placed  upon  them  and  fire  built  under- 
neath, is  all  the  stove  they  require.  With  this  simple  apparatus 
all  their  cooking  is  done.  The  rice  is  cooked  in  this  kettle  and 
placed  upon  the  table.  The  Chinese  gather  around  this  table 
sitting  upon  wooden  benches,  each  one  helping  himself  out  of 
the  kettle.  They  use  bowls  for  plates  and  chop-sticks  for  knives 
and  forks.  The  bowl  is  filled  with  rice,  the  edge  placed  to  the 
lips,  then  by  the  aid  of  the  chop-sticks  the  mouth  is  crammed 
full.  The  idea  seems  to  be  to  get  the  mouth  full  as  possible  and 
to  make  as  much  noise  as  possible  at  the  same  time.  It  reminds 
one  of  pigs  eating.  Soiuetimes  they  drink  tea  with  their  meals, 
other  times  Chinese  gin.  Both  drinks  are  drank  from  little 
bowls  that  hold  about  two  tablespoonfuls.  The  tea  is  always  of 
dark  color  and  is  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  upon  the 
leaves,  then  letting  it  steep  for  a  short  period.  The  gin  is  not 
very  strong  as  a  rule,  as  it  is  reduced  with  water. 

5.  In  the  bunk-house  the  same  simple  customs  are  followed. 
The  bunks  consist  of  two  platforms  built  one  above  the  other. 
The  boards  are  covered  with  strips  of  matting.  With  a  couple  of 
blankets  for  covering  and  a  block  of  wood  for  a  pillow,  there 
Chinaman  sleeps  in  comfort.  In  these  camps  one  sees  two  pe- 
culiar things  ;  one  is  the  uncleanliness  of  the  yard  and  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  building,  the  other  the  wonderful  personal 
cleanliness  of  the  Chinaman.  The  first  thing  a  Chinese  laborer 
does  when  he  comes  in  from  a  long  day's  work  is  to  go  to  the 
cook-house,  get  a  small  tub  of  water  and  take  a  sponge  bath. 
This  is  done  every  night,  no  matter  how  tired  he  may  be. 

6.  Thus  may  be  seen  what  the  American  workman  has  to  com- 
pete with,  when  Chinese  go  into  their  business.  The  American 
v/orkman  demands  better  accommodations  than  a  shake  house 
and  a  wooden  bed.  He  demands  better  food  and  better  clothes 
and  he  is  unable  to  work  for  the  same  wages  as  the  Chinaman. 

7.  The  Chinese  have  many  vices  which  though  indulged  in  by 
Americans,  are  not  so  generally  followed.  The  two  principal 
ones  are  opium-smoking  and  gambling.  Go  where  you  may 
among  Chinese  colonies  and  these  two  vices  are  sure  to  be  there. 
The  opium-smoking  is,  of  the  two,  the  greater  evil.  This  habit 
seems  to  take  hold  of  the  majority  of  the  Chinese  sooner  or  later 


328      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  C03IP0SITI0N. 

in  life.  The  opium  outfit  consists  of  a  i^ipe,  a  small  candle,  two 
or  three  pieces  of  steel,  similar  to  a  knitting  needle,  and  a  box  of 
opium.  The  pipe  is  about  two  feet  long  and  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Close  to  one  end  is  a  small  cup,  shaped  like  a  cone,  with  the  apex 
fastened  on  the  pipe.  In  this  cup  is  a  small  hole  of  the  size  of  a 
pin-head.  The  opium  is  dug  out  of  the  box  with  the  steel  needle, 
held  over  the  candle  until  cooked  and  rolled  into  a  pill  about  the 
size  of  a  pea.  It  is  then  placed  over  the  hole  in  the  cup  and 
again  held  over  the  candle.  The  smoker  draws  on  the  pipe  and 
inhales  the  smoke.  It  is  wonderful  what  a  quantity  of  smoke  an 
experienced  smoker  can  draw  into  his  lungs.  The  pill  is  just 
enough  for  one  smoke.  This  smoking  is  done  two  or  three  times 
and  the  smoker  drojjs  off  into  a  semi-conscious  state  of  sleep. 
This  vice  would  not  be  so  bad  if  it  was  not  learned  by  Americans. 
But  in  the  large  cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  opium  rooms  owned 
Ijy  Chinese  are  patronized  by  white  men  who  have  learned  the 
habit  from  the  Chinese. 

8.  Gambling  among  the  Chinese  seems  to  come  to  them 
naturally.  The  greater  majority  of  Chinese  gamble  whenever  they 
have  the  necessary  cash.  The  principal  gambling  games  are  fan- 
tan,  dominoes,  and  lotteries.  They  also  have  many  kinds  of  dice 
games.  A  Chinaman  will  sit  down  to  a  gambling  table  and  play 
all  night  or  until  his  money  is  gone.  The  fascination  of  the  game 
seems  to  have  complete  control  of  him.  Here  again  the  Chinese 
have  taught  the  American  many  things  in  the  way  of  gambling 
but  most  of  the  gambling  houses  in  the  Chinese  colonies  are 
patronized  by  Chinese. 

9.  To  see  the  Chinaman  at  his  best,  is  to  visit  him  during  his 
New  Year's  festivities.  No  matter  how  poor  he  may  be,  or  in 
what  part  of  the  country  he  is,  he  will  take  at  least  one  holiday, 
and  if  his  purse  permits,  many  more.  At  New  Year's  every 
Chinaman  tries  to  pay  his  debts  and  start  the  year  anew.  He 
dresses  in  his  best  clothes,  eats  his  best  meals,  and  worships  at 
the  altar  of  his  heathen  gods,  which  are  always  found  in  every 
Chinese  colony.  The  altar  consists  of  a  picture  of  three  or  four 
hideous  looking  men,  surrounded  by  some  sort  of  a  frame, 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  colony.  Before  this  picture  the 
Chinese  bows  himself  to  the  floor  and  pours  gin  upon  tlie  floor. 
To  be  sure  that  the  gods  are  listening  to  liim,  he  casts  two  blocks 


Xir.     PLACER  MINING  IN  BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  SSO 

of  wood  upon  the  floor  ;  if  one  smooth  side  and  one  rough  side 
come  up  together  the  gods  are  listening.  He  is  always  sure  of 
their  attention,  for  if  the  blocks  do  not  come  up  right  the  first 
time,  he  continues  throwing  them  until  they  do.  After  this  per- 
formance is  over,  he  fires  ofi;  a  lot  of  fire-crackers  to  frighten 
away  all  evil  spirits  or  devils  that  may  be  lurking  about. 

10.  Since  the  passage  of  the  exclusion  act,  the  i^rice  of  Chinese 
labor  has  risen.  Tliis  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  are  no 
inexperienced  Chinese  coming  to  this  country  and  those  that  are 
here,  having  more  or  less  exi^erience  in  the  work  of  the  country, 
demand  higher  pay. 

11.  In  some  ways  I  think  this  country  is  benefited  by  Chinese 
labor.  The  great  fruit  ranches  of  this  state,  are  in  many  localities 
run  by  Chinese  labor.  The  reasons  for  this  state  of  affairs  are 
many.  The  Chinaman  does  better  work  for  less  pay  than  the 
white  man.  He  is  steady  and  can  be  depended  upon,  as  he  never 
goes  off  to  the  village  on  Sunday  and  comes  home  intoxicated  and 
unfit  for  work  Monday  morning.  He  will  not  lie  down  in  the 
shade  of  a  tree  the  minute  his  employer's  back  is  turned.  Again, 
many  times  a  Chinaman  will  perform  work  which  a  white  man 
does  not  like,  such  as  using  a  hoe  or  shovel  or  picking  fruit  in  the 
hot  sun  all  day.  This  sort  of  work  the  Chinaman  seems  fitted 
for,  as  he  is  never  in  a  hurry  but  keeps  up  a  steady  pace  the  whole 
time  he  is  at  work. 

12.  But  take  it  in  another  light,  and  perhaps  the  correct  one, 
that  is,  Chinese  labor  is  a  burden  to  this  country.  It  prevents 
many  white  citizens  from  earning  a  living  which  rightfully 
belongs  to  them.  The  Chinese  do  not  become  citizens,  the  money 
they  earn  is  almost  all  sent  out  of  the  country,  and  they  only  stay 
here  until  they  have  saved  enough  money  to  be  able  to  live  in 
China  without  working.  They  make  no  improvements  of  a 
permanent  nature,  thus  leave  but  little  to  show  for  what  they 
have  taken  from  the  countrv. 


XIV.   Placer  Mining  in  British  Columbia. 

1.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company  through  Indians  knew  of  the 
existence  of  gold  in  British  Columbia  early  in  this  century,  but 


S30      APPENDIX  B.— DEFECTIVE  COMPOStTlOK. 

as  their  policy  was  to  keep  the  country  as  wild  and  unsettled  as 
possible  they  took  pains  to  keep  the  news  among  themselves. 

2.  However  in  1857  some  sailors  who  had  mined  in  California 
were  in  Victoria  and  they  heard  of  the  existence  of  gold  on  the 
Fraser  River,  Eelying  upon  their  information  they  deserted  ship 
and  at  once  made  up  a  prospecting  party  and  went  up  the  river. 
The  lateness  of  the  season  and  the  fall  freshet  prevented  much 
work,  but  enough  was  done  to  prove  that  there  were  rich  bars  on 
the  Fraser  River. 

3.  Some  of  these  men  returned  to  California  to  winter  and 
some  wintered  in  Victoria.  Through  these  men,  although  they 
made  mutual  promises  not  to  tell,  tlie  news  of  their  discoveries 
spread  abroad,  and  in  the  spring  of  1858  many  hundreds  of  men 
were  in  Victoria  ready  to  go  up  the  river  as  soon  as  the  annual 
spring  freshet  would  allow  them  to.  When  the  freshet  had  sub- 
sided they  went  up  the  river  about  four  hundred  miles  and  made 
many  new  and  important  discoveries.  During  this  summer  large 
amounts  of  gold  were  taken  out  of  the  bars  by  rocking,  a  method 
by  which  very  little  ground  can  be  worked.  As  tlie  Fraser  River 
gold  was  flaky  and  fine  it  required  either  mercury  or  a  blanket  to 
separate  it  from  the  sand,  so  rocking  was  probably  the  best  plan 
as  well  as  the  most  feasible  one.  During  the  next  two  years  work 
on  the  bars  continued  and  the  benches  on  the  banks  were  found 
and  discoveries  of  bars  and  benches  were  made  along  and  in 
creeks  putting  into  the  river. 

4.  In  the  fall  of  1859  an  important  discovery  was  made  on  a 
small  creek  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Fraser  River.  The 
surface  gravel  on  tliis  creek  was  very  rich,  it  being  possible  for  a 
single  man  to  make  about  ten  ounces  of  gold  a  day  "shoveling- 
in."  In  this  way  the  discoverers  worked  away  all  the  upper 
gravel  on  their  claims  and  then  came  down  upon  a  bed  of  clay. 
Late  in  the  fall  of  18G0  they  sunk  a  shaft  through  this  bed  of  clay 
and  found  under  tliis  bed  of  clay  and  upon  tlie  underlying  bed- 
rock a  stratum  of  auriferous  gravel  rich  in  gold.  This  discovery 
was  important  because  it  proved  the  existence  of  deep  diggings  in 
British  Columbia  and  led  all  owners  on  this  creek  and  on  other 
creeks  where  before  only  the  benches  and  surface  had  been  worked 
to  sink  shafts  to  prospect  the  deeper  ground  in  the  creek  beds. 
These  deep   diggings,  though  more  expensive  to  work,   proved 


Xir.     PLACER  MINING  IN  BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  331 

themselves  richer  and  capable  of  producing  more  for  a  longer 
time  than  any  other  kind  of  placer-mining. 

5.  Placer-mining  in  British  Columbia,  considered  with  respect 
to  the  method  of  separating  gold  from  the  soil,  naturally  falls 
into  three  large  sub-divisions,  namely  surface-diggings,  deep- 
diggings,  and  river-bed  diggings. 

6.  In  the  beginning  of  mining  in  the  province,  surface-diggings 
were  the  most  important,  as  they  are  in  every  new  mining  country 
for  the  reason  that  they  are  easily  found  and  easily  worked. 

7.  Surface-diggings  are  usually  worked  by  one  of  three  methods, 
"shoveling-in,"  "ground-sluicing,"  or  "  hydraulicking." 

8.  Shoveling-in  was  the  way  by  which  most  of  the  shallow 
benches  along  the  rivers  and  creeks  were  worked.  It  was  espe- 
cially adapted  to  shallow  diggings  when  the  mining  laws  only 
allowed  one  man  to  have  a  claim  thirty  feet  square,  because  the 
apparatus  was  inexpensive  and  could  be  carried  about  with  com- 
parative ease.  The  principal  part  of  the  apparatus  were  long 
sluice  boxes  twelve  feet  long  and  a  foot  or  fourteen  inches  wide. 
In  the  bottom  of  these,  riffles  made  of  long  narrow  strips  or  sawn 
blocks  were  put  to  catch  the  gold  when  it  was  washed  from  the 
soil.  "When  these  boxes  were  set  up  and  placed  alongside  of  the 
bank  a  stream  of  water  is  turned  upon  the  bank  that  is  to  be 
washed  and  men  by  guiding  it  and  loosening  the  earth  wash  away 
a  great  part  of  the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  the  action  of  the 
water  separates  the  gold  from  it.  The  residuum  is  then  handled 
by  shoveling-in. 

9.  In  tlie  early  days  hydraulicking  was  carried  on  with  canvas 
hose  instead  of  with  the  iron  pipes  that  are  used  nowadays. 
They  were  inadequate  in  many  places  and  were  little  used  in 
other  places  because  of  the  small  claim-holdings  that  could  not 
pay  for  the  large  initial  expense  that  would  be  incident  to 
putting  iu  a  hydraulic  plant.  At  the  present  time  the  govern- 
ment is  liberal  in  its  grants  and  a  larger  capital  is  invested  in 
hydraulic  mining  than  in  any  other  kind  of  placer-mining.  Some 
of  these  plants  are  able  to  work  hundreds  of  thousands  of  cubic 
yards  of  earth  a  day.  To  put  such  a  plant  upon  a  working  basis 
a  large  investment  is  necessary.  The  ditches  are  often  fifteen  or 
twenty  miles  long  with  a  capacity  of  five  or  six  thousand  miner's 
inches  of  water. 


83l>      APPENDIX  B.—DEFECTIVI)  COMPOSITION. 

10.  The  terminus  of  the  ditch  is  in  a  reservoir  far  above  the 
level  where  the  water  is  to  be  used  and  from  it  steel  pipes  con- 
duct the  water  to  tlie  place  where  it  is  played  upon  the  bank. 
Often  the  steel  pipes  at  the  reservoir  are  four  feet  in  diameter 
and  gradually  narrow  to  about  eight  inches  at  the  nozzle.  About 
a  thousand  inches  of  water  are  forced  through  this  nozzle  by  a 
fall  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet.  The  nozzle  is  usually  played 
along  the  base  of  a  bank  so  as  to  cause  caves  and  slides.  The 
rest  of  the  water  in  the  ditch  is  turned  over  the  face  of  the 
bank  to  loosen  it  and  to  wash  away  the  dirt  caved  down  by 
the  pipe.  This  water  and  dirt  is  guided  by  men  into  the  tiumes 
where  it  is  thoroughly  washed,  the  dirt  itself  passing  on  with 
the  water  while  the  gold  settles  down  among  the  riffles.  The 
riffles  in  such  claims  are  usually  round  blocks  about  ten  inches 
thick  sawn  from  trees  though  often  where  the  rocks  are  large 
that  kind  of  riffle  cannot  stand  a  season's  wear  so  railroad 
track  is  used. 

11.  The  very  large  boulders  are  taken  away  before  they  get 
into  the  flume  by  means  of  cranes  and  levers  while  rocks  that  the 
water  can  roll  along  are  left  to  go  down  the  flume. 

12.  The  flume  itself  is  never  run  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  bank 
because  it  would  likely  be  damaged  by  the  caves,  but  it  is  run  up 
as  near  to  the  banks  as  it  can  be  and  yet  avoid  this  danger  and 
at  the  same  time  leave  enough  space  clear  to  give  the  men  a 
chance  to  clear  away  rocks  and  work  the  caves  into  the  flume. 

13.  Where  the  government  will  give  large  tracts  of  land  or 
where  such  a  tract  can  be  controlled,  hydraulicking  is  thought 
to  be  the  most  effective  and  in  the  end  the  least  expensive  of  all 
methods. 

14.  The  presence  of  deep  diggings  in  British  Columbia  was 
proved  by  discoveries  of  1860.  This  kind  of  diggings,  because 
of  the  extent  and  richness  of  it,  was  for  a  long  time  the  most 
important  placer  mining  done  in  the  province.  The  expensive- 
ness  however  prevented  its  use  in  many  places  where  a  cheaper 
method  would  have  yielded  large  results. 

15.  To  meet  this  need  a  machine  known  as  the  hydraulic 
lifting  plant  was  invented  and  is  successfully  worked  in  deep 
diggings.  It  is  worked  in  the  same  manner  as  an  ordinary 
hydraulic  plant,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  dirt  is  forced 


XIV.     PLACER  MININQ  M  BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  ^33 

up   from    the  bedrock   whereas  in  ordinary  hydraulicking  it  is 
forced  down. 

16.  River-bed  diggings  is  an  important  branch  of  placer  mining 
that  has  been  worked  only  within  the  past  year.  It  has  been 
known  since  1838  that  the  annual  freshets  deposited  alluvium  on 
the  bars  of  the  Fraser  River  that  contained  a  good  deal  of  gold, 
so  much  of  it  that  it  paid  Chinamen  and  miners  to  work  it  anew 
after  each  freshet.  It  was  also  known  that  the  alluvium  at  the 
bottom  of  the  river  contained  gold  in  paying  quantities,  but 
no  practical  way  for  getting  it  out  was  known,  until  some  one 
tried  an  ordinary  harbor  dredge  and  found  that  it  worked  very 
well.  Some  changes  were  made  in  this  dredge  to  make  it  more 
suitable  for  the  work  that  had  to  be  done  and  it  has  since  worked 
well  and  very  profitably.  Now  a  number  of  these  machines  are 
in  profitable  use  on  the  Fraser  River. 


APPENDIX  C 

MODELS    OF   GOOD    COMPOSITION.* 

XY.   A  Bee  Hunt. 

1.  The  beautiful  forest  iu  which  we  were  encamped  abounded 
in  bee  trees  ;  that  is  to  say,  trees  in  the  decayed  trunks  of  which 
wild  bees  had  established  their  hives.  It  is  surprising  in  what 
countless  swarms  the  bees  have  overspread  the  far  west  witliin 
but  a  moderate  number  of  years.  The  Indians  consider  them  the 
harbinger  of  the  white  man,  as  the  Buffalo  is  of  the  red  man  ;  and 
say  that,  in  proportion  as  the  bee  advances,  the  Indian  and 
Buffalo  retire.  We  are  always  accustomed  to  associate  the  hum 
of  the  bee-hive  with  the  farm  house  and  flower  garden,  and  to 
consider  those  industrious  little  animals  as  connected  with  the 
busy  haunts  of  man,  and  I  am  told  that  the  wild  bee  is  seldom  to 
be  met  with  at  any  great  distance  from  the  frontier.  They  have 
been  the  heralds  of  civilization,  steadfastly  preceding  it  as  it 
advanced  from  tlie  Atlantic  borders,  and  some  of  the  ancient 
settlers  of  the  west  pretend  to  give  the  vei-y  year  when  the  honey 
bee  first  crossed  the  Mississippi.  The  Indians  with  surprise  found 
the  mouldering  trees  of  their  forests  suddenly  teeming  with 
ambrosial  sweets,  and  nothing,  I  am  told,  can  exceed  the  greedy 
relish  with  which  they  banquet  for  the  first  time  upon  this 
unbought  luxury  of  the  wilderness. 

*  Selections  XV-XXII  are  relatively  complete  compositions,  tliongh  few  of 
them  are  absolutely  so.  Each  is  unabridged  as  far  as  it  j^oes.  In  only  one  case 
is  there  danger  that  tlie  lack  of  completeness  will  tlirow  tlie  parts  of  the  com- 
position into  false  perspective.  This  is  iiie  selection  from  Macanlay,  which,  as 
here  given,  is  only  the  flrst  quarter  of  the  entire  essay.  The  numbering  of  the 
paragraphs  in  all  of  the  selections  is  introduced  merely  for  convenience  of 
reference.  The  selections  are  intended  to  represent,  as  far  as  possible,  all 
varieties  of  composition,  from  Narrative  to  Argumentative.    See  5. 

334 


XV.    A  BEE  HUNT.  336 

2.  At  present  the  honey  bee  swarms  in  myriads  in  the  noble 
groves  and  forests  that  skirt  and  intersect  the  prairies  and  extend 
along  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  the  rivers.  It  seems  to  me  as  if 
these  beautiful  regions  answer  literally  to  the  description  of  the 
land  of  promise,  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  ; "  for  the 
rich  pasturage  of  the  prairies  is  calculated  to  sustain  herds  of 
cattle  as  countless  as  the  sands  upon  the  sea-shore,  while  the 
flowers  with  which  they  are  enamelled  render  them  a  very  paradise 
for  the  nectar-seeking  bee. 

3.  "We  had  not  been  long  in  the  camp  when  a  party  set  out  in 
(juest  of  a  bee  tree  ;  and,  being  curious  to  witness  the  sport,  I 
gladly  accepted  an  invitg-tion  to  accompany  them.  The  party 
was  headed  by  a  veteran  bee  hunter,  a  tall  lank  fellow  in  home- 
spun garb  that  hung  loosely  about  his  limbs,  and  a  straw  hat 
shaped  not  unlike  a  bee-hive  ;  a  comrade,  equally  uncouth  in 
garb,  and  without  a  hat,  straddled  along  at  his  heels,  with  a  long 
rifle  on  his  shoulder.  To  these  succeeded  half  a  dozen  others, 
some  with  axes  and  some  with  rifles,  for  no  one  stirs  far  from  the 
camp  without  his  fire-arms,  so  as  to  be  ready  either  for  wild  deer 
or  wild  Indian. 

4.  After  ^n'oceeding  some  distance  we  came  to  an  open  glade  on 
the  skirts  of  the  forest.  Here  our  leader  halted,  and  then 
advanced  quietly  to  a  low  bush,  on  the  top  of  which  I  perceived 
a  piece  of  honey-comb.  This  I  found  was  the  bait  or  lure  for  the 
wild  bees.  Several  were  humming  about  it,  and  diving  into  its 
cells.  When  they  had  laden  themselves  with  honey  they  would 
rise  into  the  air,  and  dart  off  in  a  straight  line,  almost  with  the 
velocity  of  a  bullet.  The  hunters  watched  attentively  the  course 
tliey  took,  and  then  set  ofi'  in  the  same  direction,  stumbling  along 
over  twisted  roots  and  fallen  trees,  with  their  eyes  turned  up  to 
the  sky.  In  this  way  they  traced  the  honey-laden  bees  to  their 
hive,  in  the  hollow  trunk  of  a  blasted  oak,  where,  after  buzzing 
about  for  a  moment,  they  entered  a  hole  about  sixty  feet  from  the 
ground. 

5.  Two  of  the  bee  hunters  now  plied  their  axes  vigorously  at 
the  foot  of  the  tree  to  level  it  with  the  ground.  The  mere 
spectators  and  amateurs  in  the  mean  time,  drew  off  to  a  cautious 
distance,  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  falling  of  the  tree  and  the 
vengeance  of  its  inmates.     The  jarring  blows  of  the  axe  seemed 


S36  APPEyDix  c.—modelB. 

to  have  no  effect  in  alarming  or  disturbing  this  most  industrious 
community.  They  continued  to  ply  at  their  usual  occupations, 
some  arriving  full  freighted  into  port,  others  sallying  forth  on 
new  expeditions,  like  so  many  merchantmen  in  a  money-making 
metropolis,  little  suspicious  of  impending  bankruptcy  and  down- 
fall. Even  a  loud  crack  which  announced  the  disrupture  of  the 
trunk,  failed  to  divert  tlieir  attention  from  the  intense  pursuit  of 
gain  ;  at  length  down  came  the  tree  with  a  tremendous  crash, 
bursting  open  from  end  to  end,  and  displaying  all  the  hoarded 
treasures  of  the  commonwealth. 

6.  One  of  the  hunters  immediately  ran  up  with  a  wisp  of  lighted 
hay  as  a  defense  against  the  bees.  The  latter,  however,  made  no 
attack  and  sought  no  revenge  ;  they  seemed  stupefied  by  the 
catastrophe  and  unsiisiiicious  of  its  cause,  and  remained  crawling 
and  buzzing  about  the  ruins  without  offering  us  any  molestation. 
Every  one  of  the  party  now  fell  to,  with  spoon  and  hunting  knife, 
to  scoop  out  the  flakes  of  honeycomb  with  which  the  hollow 
trunk  was  stored.  Some  of  them  were  of  old  date  and  a  deep 
brown  color,  others  were  beautifully  white,  and  the  honey  in  their 
cells  was  almost  limpid.  Such  of  the  combs  as  were  entire  were 
placed  in  camp  kettles  to  be  conveyed  to  the  encampment ;  those 
which  had  been  shivered  in  the  fall  were  devoured  tipon  the 
spot.  Every  stark  bee  hunter  was  to  be  seen  with  a  rich  morsel 
in  his  hand,  dripping  about  his  fingers,  and  disappearing  as 
rapidly  as  a  cream  tart  before  the  holiday  appetite  of  a  school- 
boy. 

7.  Nor  was  it  the  bee  hunters  alone  that  profited  by  the  down- 
fall of  this  industrious  community  ;  as  if  the  bees  would  carry 
through  the  similitude  of  their  habits  with  those  of  laborious  and 
gainful  man,  I  beheld  numbers  from  rival  hives,  arriving  on  eager 
wing,  to  enrich  themselves  with  the  ruins  of  their  neighbors. 
These  busied  themselves  as  eagerly  and  cheerfully  as  so  many 
wreckers  on  an  Indiaman  that  had  been  driven  on  shore ;  plunging 
in  the  cells  of  the  broken  honey-combs,  banqueting  greedily  on 
the  spoil,  and  then  winging  their  way  full  freighted  to  their 
homes.  As  to  the  poor  proprietors  of  the  ruin,  they  seemed  to 
have  no  heart  to  do  anything,  not  even  to  taste  the  nectar  that 
flowed  around  them;  but  crawled  backwards  and  forwards,  in 
vacant  desolation,  as  I  have  seen  a  poor  fellow  with  his  hands  in 


XVL     WHICH  TO-DAY  IS.  337 

his  breeches  pocket,  whistling  vacantly  and  despondingly  about 
the  ruins  of  his  house  that  had  been  burnt. 

8.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  bewilderment  and  confusion  of 
the  bees  of  the  bankrupt  hive  who  had  been  absent  at  the  time  of 
the  catastrophe,  and  who  arrived  from  time  to  time,  with  full 
cargoes  from  abroad.  At  first  they  wheeled  about  in  the  air,  in 
the  place  where  the  fallen  tree  had  once  reared  its  head,  astonished 
at  finding  it  all  a  vacuum.  At  length,  as  if  comprehending  their 
disaster,  they  settled  down  in  clusters  on  a  dry  branch  of  a 
neighboring  tree,  from  whence  they  seemed  to  contemplate  the 
prostrate  ruin,  and  to  buzz  forth  doleful  lamentations  over  the 

'downfall  of  their  republic.     It  was  a  scene  on  which  the  "melan- 
choly Jacques  "  might  have  moralized  by  the  hour. 

9.  We  now  abandoned  the  place,  leaving  much  honey  in  the 
hollow  of  the  tree.  "It  will  all  be  cleared  off  by  varmint,"  said 
one  of  the  rangers.  "  What  vermin  ?"  asked  I.  "  Oh  bears,  and 
skunks,  and  raccoons,  and  'possums.  The  bears  is  the  knowingest 
varmint  for  finding  out  a  bee  tree  in  the  world.  They'll  gnaw  for 
days  together  at  the  trunk  till  they  make  a  hole  big  enough  to 
get  in  their  paws,  and  then  they'll  haul  out  honey,  bees  and  all." 
— Washington  Irving  :  A  Tour  07i  the  Prairies. 


XVI.     Which  To-day  Is. 

He  was  picking  poppies. 

Shyly,  as  if  afraid  of  being  seen,  his  little  brown  fingers  parted 
the  grass  and  snapped  the  brittle  stems.  He  picked  and  picked, 
until  he  had  as  many  as  his  baby  hands  could  clasp  ;  then  he 
sneaked  off  down  the  lonely  path,  looking  back  sometimes  to 
make  sure  he  was  not  watched,  and  burying  his  dark  face  in  the 
flame-colored  flowers.  His  face  was  dark,  because  of  the  French 
blood  in  his  veins,  and  because  it  was  dirty. 

I  tried  to  make  no  noise,  but  like  some  untamed  creature  he 
caught  the  sound  of  my  cautious  steps.  He  started  violently, 
darted  behind  the  nearest  live-oak  and  hid  his  poppies  in  the 
grass.  When  I  emerged  from  my  retreat,  his  hands  were  in  his 
pockets,  his  cap  on  the  back  of  his  head,  and  he  looked  up  boldly 


338  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

through  tlie  shaggy  Wack  fringe  on  his  forehead  as  if  to  say, 
'•You  see  me,  Tony,  son  of  Jean,  a  poor  but  honest  man.  What 
do  you  want  ? " 

"Tony,"  I  asked,  "what  made  you  hide  the  poppies?" 

"  Poppies  ?    Who  has  poppies  ?    I'm  Tony.     I'm  a  man." 

"  Yes,  I  know,  but  I  thought  you  had  some  in  your  hands  as 
you  came  along." 

"  Poppies !  Zoze  is  foh  guls.  I'm  a  man.  Men  don't  like 
poppies." 

"  Well,  now,'"  I  said  in  the  tone  I  use  with  Jack,  "  to  tell  the 
truth,  I  like  them  myself,  though  I'm  a  man.  Of  course  you 
needn't  mention  it — but  let's  have  a  look  at  some  now." 

He  was  suspicious.  His  mouth  always  drooped  at  the  corners 
as  if  his  tiny  life  had  known  no  joy.  What  a  queer  figure  he  was 
with  that  faded  Frenchy  jacket  and  round  cap  !  His  near-set 
eyes  had  caught  the  darkness  of  this  cloudy  world  of  poverty  and 
misery. 

"  Ahn't  you  shamed  to  like  'em  ?"  he  asked,  doubtfully. 

"Well,  I  don't  say  much  about  it,  but  I  guess  it's  not  such  a 
bad  thing  after  all." 

"  Enoch  Lilengren  says  it's  guls  'at  like  'em." 

"Very  likely  he  thinks  so,  but  I  wouldn't  care  what  he  said. 
The  poppies  are  so  pretty." 

Doubt  and  fear  faded  from  Tony's  face.  He  turned  away,  and 
in  a  moment  came  back  with  his  gorgeous  treasure,  fire-lover  that 
he  was. 

"Do  you  really  like  'em?"  he  said,  wistfully.  Then — "Do 
you  love  'em  ?"  gazing  passionately  at  their  glory.  "  I  love  'em. 
I  love  'em  better  'n  anysin'  else." 

His  face  was  fierce.  The  petals  fell  in  a  shower  as  he  pressed 
the  flowers  tighter  and  tighter,  crushing  the  life  out  of  them. 
He  exulted  in  their  possession.  He  kissed  them  over  and  over, 
then  he  kissed  me.  American  boys  don't  do  such  things ;  all 
his  heart  went  out  to  me  because  I  did  not  laugh  at  his  love. 


That  was  three  weeks  ago.  Yesterday  I  happened  to  be  neai' 
tlie  French  laundry  and  I  stopped  in  to  inquire  after  Tony.  His 
mother  met  me.     She  is  fat  and  black  aud  greasy. 


XVI  11.     PEEUI PICES  OF  MONT  CEEVIN.         339 

"  Fer  ees  Tony  ?  Ah,  mon  bon  Monsieui-,  Tony  ees  dead  sence 
vun  veek.  He  —  ah,  he  jus' get  seek  an' die.  Vould  Monsieur 
haf  some  shirts  vashed  ?  "—Sarah  Comstock. 

XVII.     The  "Westinghouse  Air-brake. 

In  the  Westinghouse  brake  the  apparatus  consists  of  an  air- 
pump  or  compressor  on  the  locomotive,  a  main  reservoir  for 
storing  the  compressed  air  ready  for  use,  and  an  engineer's  brake- 
valve  connected  to  this  reservoir.  From  this  brake-valve  extends 
a  pipe  throughout  the  length  of  the  train,  composed  of  iron  under 
each  car,  and  of  rubber  hose  with  suitable  couplings  between 
each  two  cars,  thus  making  practically  a  continuous  pipe  the 
whole  length  of  the  train.  Under  each  car  and  connected  to  the 
train  pipe,  through  a  peculiar  piece  of  mechanism  called  a  triple 
valve,  is  a  small  auxiliary  reservoir  which  is  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  supply  air  to  a  brake  cylinder  close  by.  This  brake  cylinder 
consists  of  a  common  cylinder  with  piston  and  rod,  the  rod  being 
attached  to  the  brake  levers  of  the  car,  so  that  when  the  piston  is 
puslied  out  by  the  pressure  of  air  behind  it  the  brake  shoes  are 
pushed  against  the  wheels  and  the  speed  of  the  train  retarded  or 
stopped  entirely,  as  the  case  may  be.  This  triple  valve  consists 
principally  of  a  piston  and  a  slide  valve,  and  when  the  air  pres- 
sure is  in  excess  on  one  side  of  the  piston,  it  is  pushed  up  and 
communication  is  direct  between  the  train  pipe  and  the  auxiliary 
reservoir.  This  continues  so  long  as  the  pressure  is  equal  on  both 
sides  of  the  piston,  but  if  a  sudden  reduction  of  pressure  is  made 
behind  this  piston,  leaving  an  excess  on  the  other  side,  the  piston 
will  immediately  move  back,  carrying  with  it  the  slide  valve  above 
mentioned.  This  slide  valve  opens  communication  between  the 
auxiliary  reservoir  and  the  brake  cylinder,  while  at  the  same 
time,  or  a  little  before,  it  closes  communication  between  the  train 
pipe  and  auxiliary  reservoir. 

XVIII.     The  Precipices  of  Mont  Cervin.* 

1.  To  return  to  the  Oervin.  The  view  of  it  given  on  the  left 
hand  in  Plate  38 1  shows  the  ridge  in  about  its  narrowest  profile  ; 

*  More  commonly  known  by  its  German  name,  The  Matterhorn, 
t  The  plates  and  figures  are  not  reproduced  here, 


340  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

and  shows  also  that  this  ridge  is  composed  of  beds  of  rock  shelv- 
ing across  it,  apparently  horizontal,  or  nearly  so,  at  the  top,  and 
sloping  considerably  southwards  (to  the  spectator's  left),  at  the 
bottom.  How  far  this  slope  is  a  consequence  of  the  advance  of 
the  nearest  angle  giving  a  steep  perspective  to  the  beds,  I  cannot 
say ;  my  own  belief  would  have  been  that  a  great  deal  of  it  is 
thus  deceptive,  the  beds  lying  as  the  tiles  do  in  the  somewhat 
anomalous  but  perfectly  conceivable  house-roof,  Fig.  79.  Saus- 
sure,  however,  attributes  to  the  beds  themselves  a  very  consid- 
erable slope.  But  be  this  as  it  may,  the  main  facts  of  the 
thinness  of  the  beds,  their  comparative  horizontality,  and  the 
daring  swordsweep  by  which  the  whole  mountain  has  been  hewn 
out  of  them,  are  from  this  spot  comprehensible  at  a  glance.  Vis- 
ible, I  should  have  said;  but  eternally,  and  to  the  uttermost,  in- 
comprehensible.  Every  geologist  who  speaks  of  this  mountain 
seems  to  be  struck  by  the  wonderfulness  of  its  calm  sculpture — 
the  absence  of  all  aspect  of  convulsion,  and  yet  the  stern  chisel- 
ing of  so  vast  a  mass  into  its  precipitous  isolation  leaving  no  ruin 
nor  debris  near  it.  "  Quelle  force  n'a-t-il  pasfallu,"  exclaims 
M.  Saussure,  '■'■pour  romjne,  et  pour  halayer  tout  ce  qui  manque 
a  cette  pyraniide!^''  "YvHiat  an  overturn  of  all  ancient  ideas  in 
Geology,"  says  Professor  Forbes,  "to  find  a  pinnacle  of  15,000 
feet  high  [above  the  sea]  sharp  as  a  pyramid,  and  with  perpen- 
dicular precipices  of  thousands  of  feet  on  every  hand,  to  be  a 
representative  of  the  older  chalk  formation;  and  what  a  difficulty 
to  conceive  the  nature  of  a  convulsion  (even  with  unlimited 
power)  which  could  produce  a  configuration  like  the  Mont  Cervin 
rising  from  the  glacier  of  Zmutt !  " 

2.  The  terra  "perpendicular"  is  of  course  applied  by  the  Pro- 
fessor in  the  "poetical"  temper  of  Reynolds, — that  is  to  say,  in 
one  "  inattentive  to  minute  exactness  in  details  ;"  but  the  effect 
of  this  strange  Matterhorn  upon  the  imagination  is  indeed  so 
great  that  even  the  gravest  philosopher  cannot  resist  it ;  and 
Professor  Forbes's  drawing  of  the  peak,  outlined  at  page  180,  has 
evidently  been  made  under  the  influence  of  considerable  excite- 
ment. For  fear  of  being  deceived  by  enthusiasm  also,  I  daguerre- 
otyped  the  Cervin  from  the  edge  of  the  little  lake  under  the  crag 
of  the  Riffelhorn,  with  the  somewhat  amazing  result  shown 
in  Fig.  80.     So  cautious  is  Nature,  even  in  her  boldest  work,  so 


XVIIJ.     PRECIPICES  OF  MONT  CEBVIN.         341 

broadly  does  she  extend  the  foundations,  and  strengthen  the  but- 
tresses, of  masses  which  produce  so  striking  an  impressioJi  as  to 
be  described,  even  by  the  most  careful  writers,  as  perpendicular. 

3.  The  only  portion  of  the  Matterhorn  which  approaches  such 
a  condition  is  the  shoulder,  before  alluded  to,  forming  a  step  of 
about  one  twelfth  the  height  of  the  whole  peak,  shown  by  light 
on  its  snowy  side,  or  upper  surface,  in  the  right-hand  figure  of 
Plate  38.  Allowing  4000  feet  for  the  height  of  the  peak,  this  step 
or  shoulder  will  be  between  300  and  400  feet  in  absolute  height ; 
and  as  it  is  not  only  perpendicular,  but  assuredly  overhangs,  both 
at  this  snow-lighted  angle  and  at  the  other  corner  of  the  moun- 
tain (seen  against  the  sky  in  the  same  figure),  I  have  not  the 
slightest  doubt  that  a  plumb-line  would  swing  from  the  brow  of 
either  of  these  bastions,  between  600  and  800  feet,  without  touch- 
ing rock.  The  intermediate  portion  of  the  cliflf  which  joins  them 
is,  however,  not  more  than  vertical.  I  was  therefore  anxious 
chiefly  to  observe  the  structure  of  the  two  angles,  and,  to  that 
end,  to  see  the  mountain  close  on  that  side  from  the  Zmutt 
glacier. 

4.  I  am  afraid  my  dislike  to  the  nomenclatures  invented  by 
the  German  philosophers  has  been  unreasonably,  though  involun- 
tarily, complicated  with  that  which,  crossing  out  of  Italy,  one 
necessarily  feels  for  those  invented  by  the  German  peasantry. 
As  travellers  now  every  day  more  frequently  visit  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Monte  Rosa,  it  would  surely  be  a  permissible,  because 
convenient,  poetical  license,  to  invent  some  other  name  for  this 
noble  glacier,  whose  present  title,  certainly  not  euphonious,  has 
the  additional  disadvantage  of  being  easily  confounded  with  that 
of  the  Zermatt  glacier,  properly  so  called.  I  mean  myself, 
henceforward,  to  call  it  the  Red  glacier,  because,  for  two  or  three 
miles  above  its  lower  extremity,  the  whole  surface  of  it  is  covered 
with  blocks  of  reddish  gneiss,  or  other  slaty  crystalline  rocks, — 
some  fallen  from  the  Cervin,  some  from  the  "Weisshorn,  some 
brought  from  the  Stockhi  and  Dent  d'Erin,  but  little  rolled  or 
ground  down  in  the  transit,  and  covering  the  ice,  often  four  or 
five  feet  deep,  with  a  species  of  macadamization  on  a  large  scale 
(each  stone  being  usually  some  foot  or  foot  and  a  half  in  diam- 
eter), anything  but  convenient  to  a  traveller  in  haste.  Higher 
up,  the  ice  opens  into  broad  white  fields  and  furrows,  hard  and 


342  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

dry,  scarcely  fissured  at  all,  except  just  under  the  Cervin,  and 
forming  a  silent  and  solemn  causeway,  paved,  as  it  seems,  with 
white  marble  from  side  to  side  ;  broad  enough  for  the  march  of 
an  army  in  line  of  battle,  but  quiet  as  a  street  of  tombs  in  a 
buried  city,  and  bordered  on  each  hand  by  ghostly  cliffs  of  that 
faint  granite  purple  which  seems,  in  its  far-away  height,  as  un- 
substantial as  the  dark  blue  that  bounds  it ;— the  whole  scene  so 
changeless  and  soundless ;  so  removed,  not  merely  from  the  pres- 
ence of  men,  but  even  from  their  thoughts  ;  so  destitute  of  all 
life  of  tree  or  herb,  and  so  immeasurable  in  its  lonely  brightness 
of  majestic  death,  that  it  looks  like  a  world  from  which  not  only 
the  human,  but  the  spiritual,  presences  had  perished,  and  the  last 
of  its  archangels,  building  the  great  mountains  for  their  monu- 
ments, had  laid  themselves  down  in  the  sunlight  to  an  eternal 
rest,  each  in  his  white  shroud. 

5.  The  first  point  from  which  the  Matterhorn  precipices,  which 
I  came  to  examine,  show  their  structure  distinctly,  is  about  half- 
way up  the  valley,  before  reaching  the  glacier.  The  most  con- 
venient path,  and  access  to  the  ice,  are  on  the  south  ;  but  it  is 
best,  in  order  to  watch  the  changes  of  the  Matterhorn,  to  keep 
on  the  north  side  of  the  valley  ;  and,  at  the  point  just  named,  the 
shoulder  marked  e  in  Fig.  33  is  seen,  in  the  morning  sunlight,  to 
be  composed  of  zigzag  beds,  apparently  of  eddied  .sand. 

6.  I  have  no  doubt  they  once  icere  eddied  sand  ;  that  is  to  say, 
sea  or  torrent  drift,  hardened  by  fire  into  crystalline  rock ;  but 
whether  they  ever  were  or  not,  the  certain  fact  is,  that  here  we 
have  a  precipice,  trenchant,  overhanging,  and  500  feet  in  height, 
cut  across  the  thin  beds  which  compose  it  as  smoothly  as  a  piece 
of  line-grained  wood  is  cut  with  a  chisel. 

7.  From  this  point,  also,  the  nature  of  the  corresponding  bas- 
tion, c  d,  Fig.  33,  is  also  discernible.  It  is  the  edge  of  a  great 
concave  precipice,  cut  out  of  the  mountain,  as  the  smooth  hollows 
are  out  of  the  rocks  at  the  foot  of  a  waterfall,  and  across  which 
the  variously  colored  beds,  thrown  by  perspective  into  corre- 
sponding curvatures,  run  exactly  like  the  seams  of  canvas  in  a 
Venetian  felucca's  sail. 

8.  Seen  from  this  spot,  it  seems  impossible  that  the  mountain 
should  long  support  itself  in  such  a  form,  but  the  impression  is 
Quly  caused  by  the  concealment  of  the  vast  proportions  of  the 


XVIII.     PRECIPICES  OF  MONT  CERVIN.         343 

mass  behind,  whose  poise  is  quite  unaflfected  by  this  hollowing 
at  one  point.  Thenceforward,  as  we  ascend  the  glacier,  the 
Matterhorn  every  moment  expands  in  apparent  width  ;  and  hav- 
ing reached  the  foot  of  the  Stockhi  (about  a  four  hours'  walk 
from  Zerraatt),  and  getting  the  Cervin  summit  to  bear  S.  11^°  E., 
I  made  the  drawing  of  it  engraved  opposite,  which  gives  a  true 
idea  of  the  relations  between  it  and  the  masses  of  its  foundation. 
The  bearing  stated  is  that  of  the  apparent  summit  only,  as  from 
this  point  the  true  summit  is  not  visible  ;  the  rocks  which  seem 
to  form  the  greatest  part  of  the  mountain  being  in  reality  noth- 
ing but  its  foundations,  while  the  little  while  jagged  peak,  re- 
lieved against  the  dark  hollow  just  below  the  seeming  summit,  is 
the  rock  marked  g  in  Fig.  33.  But  the  structure  of  the  mass,  and 
the  long  ranges  of  horizontal,  or  nearly  horizontal,  beds  which 
form  its  crest,  showing  in  black  points  like  arrow-heads  through 
the  snow,  where  their  ridges  are  left  projecting  by  the  avalanche 
channels,  are  better  seen  than  at  any  other  point  I  reached, 
together  with  the  sweeping  and  thin  zones  of  sandy  gneiss  below, 
bending  apparently  like  a  coach-spring  ;  and  the  notable  point 
about  the  whole  is,  that  this  under-bed,  of  seemingly  the  most 
delicate  substance,  is  that  prepared  by  Nature  to  build  her  bold- 
est precipice  with,  it  being  this  bed  which  emerges  at  the  two 
bastions  or  shoulders  before  noticed,  and  which  by  that  projec- 
tion causes  the  strange  oblique  distortion  of  the  whole  mountain 
mass,  as  it  is  seen  from  Zermatt. 

9.  And  our  surprise  will  still  be  increased  as  we  farther  ex- 
amine the  materials  of  which  the  whole  mountain  is  composed. 
In  many  places  its  crystalline  slates,  where  their  horizontal  sur- 
faces are  exposed  along  the  projecting  beds  of  their  foundations, 
break  into  ruin  so  total  that  the  foot  dashes  through  their  loose 
red  flakes  as  through  heaps  of  autumn  leaves  ;  and  yet,  just 
where  their  structure  seems  most  delicate,  just  where  they  seem 
to  have  been  swept  before  the  eddies  of  the  streams  that  first 
accumulated  them,  in  the  most  passive  whirls,  there  the  after 
ages  have  knit  them  into  the  most  massive  strength,  and  there 
have  hewn  out  of  them  those  firm  grey  bastions  of  the  Cervin, — 
overhanging,  smooth,  flawless,  unconquerable  !  For,  unlike  the 
Chamouni  aiguilles,  there  is  no  aspect  of  destruction  about  the 
Matterhorn  cliffs.     They  are  not  torn  remnants  of  separating 


344  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

spires,  yieldiug  flake  by  flake,  aud  baud  by  band,  to  the  con- 
tinual process  of  decay.  They  are,  on  the  contrary,  an  unaltered 
monument,  seemingly  sculptured  long  ago,  the  huge  walls  retain- 
ing yet  the  forms  into  which  they  were  first  engraven,  and  stand- 
ing like  an  Egyptian  temple, — delicate  fronted,  softly  colored, 
the  suns  of  uncounted  ages  rising  and  falling  upon  it  continually, 
but  still  casting  the  same  line  of  shadows  from  east  to  west,  still, 
century  after  century,  touching  the  same  purple  stains  on  the 
lotus  pillars  ;  while  the  desert  sand  ebbs  and  flows  about  their 
feet,  as  those  autumn  leaves  of  rock  lie  heaped  and  weak  about 
the  base  of  the  Cervin. 

10.  Is  not  this  a  strange  type,  in  the  very  heart  and  height  of 
these  mysterious  Alps — these  wrinkled  hills  in  their  snowy,  cold, 
grey-haired  old  age,  at  first  so  silent,  then  as  we  keep  quiet  at 
their  feet,  muttering  aud  whispering  to  us  garrulously,  in  broken 
and  dreaming  fits,  as  it  were,  about  their  childhood — is  it  not  a 
strange  type  of  the  things  which  "out  of  weakness  are  made 
strong  ? "  If  one  of  those  little  flakes  of  mica-sand,  hurried  in 
tremulous  spangling  along  the  bottom  of  the  ancient  river,  too 
light  to  sink,  too  faint  to  float,  almost  too  small  for  sight,  could 
have  had  a  mind  given  to  it  as  it  was  at  last  borne  down  with  its 
kindred  dust  into  the  abysses  of  the  stream,  and  laid,  (would  it 
not  have  thought  ?)  for  a  hopeless  eternity,  in  the  dark  ooze,  the 
most  despised,  forgotten,  and  feeble  of  all  earth's  atoms;  inca- 
pable of  any  use  or  change;  not  fit,  down  there  in  the  diluvial 
darkness,  so  much  as  to  help  an  earth-wasp  to  build  its  nest,  or 
feed  the  first  fibre  of  a  lichen; — what  would  it  have  thought,  had 
it  been  told  that  one  day,  knitted  into  a  strength  as  of  imperish- 
able iron,  rustless  by  the  air,  infusible  by  the  flame,  out  of  the 
substance  of  it,  with  its  fellows,  the  axe  of  God  should  hew  that 
Alpine  tower  ;  that  against  it — poor,  helpless,  mica  flake  ! — the 
wild  north  wind  siiould  rage  in  vain  ;  beneath  it — low- fallen 
mica  flake  ! — the  snowy  hills  should  lie  bowed  like  flocks  of  sheep, 
and  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  fade  away  in  unregarded  blue ; 
and  around  it — weak,  wave-drifted  mica  flake  ! — the  great  war  of 
the  firmament  should  burst  in  thunder,  and  yet  stir  it  not ;  and 
the  fiery  arrows  and  angry  meteors  of  the  night  fall  blunted  back 
from  it  into  the  air  ;  and  all  the  stars  in  the  clear  heaven  should 
light,  one  by  one  as  they  rose,  new  cressets  upon  the  points  of 


XIX.    FATHER  APOLLINARIS.  345 

snow  that  fringed  its  abiding-place  on  the  imperishable  spire  ? — 
John  Ruskin:  Ilodern  Painters.     From  Part  V,  Chapter  XVI. 


XIX.     Father  Apollinaris. 

1.  Next  morning  {lliursday,  26th  September)  I  took  the  road 
in  a  new  order.  The  sack  was  no  longer  doubled,  but  hung  at 
full  length  across  the  saddle,  a  green  sausage  six  feet  long  with  a 
tuft  of  blue  wool  hanging  out  of  either  end.  It  was  more  pictur- 
esque, it  spared  the  donkey,  and,  as  I  began  to  see,  it  would 
insure  stability,  blow  high,  blow  low.  But  it  was  not  without  a 
pang  that  I  had  so  decided.  For  although  I  had  purchased  a  new 
cord,  and  made  all  as  fast  as  I  was  able,  I  was  yet  jealously  un- 
easy lest  the  flaps  should  tumble  out  and  scatter  my  effects  along 
the  line  of  march. 

2.  My  way  lay  up  the  bald  valley  of  the  river,  along  the  march 
of  Vivarais  and  Gevaudan.  The  hills  of  Gevaudan  on  the  right 
were  a  little  more  naked,  if  anything,  than  those  of  Vivarais 
upon  the  left,  and  the  former  had  a  monopoly  of  a  low  dotty 
underwood  that  grew  thickly  in  the  gorges  and  died  out  in  soli- 
tary burrs  upon  the  shoulders  and  the  summits.  Black  bricks  of 
fir-wood  were  plastered  here  and  there  upon  both  sides,  and  here 
and  there  were  cultivated  fields.  A  railway  ran  beside  the  river  ; 
the  only  bit  of  railway  in  Gevaudan,  although  there  are  many 
proposals  afoot  and  surveys  being  made,  and  even,  as  they  tell 
me,  a  station  standing  ready  built  in  Mende.  A  year  or  two 
hence  and  this  may  be  another  world.  The  desert  is  beleaguered. 
Now  may  some  Languedocian  Wordsworth  turn  the  sonnet  into 
patois :  "  Mountains  and  vales  and  floods,  heard  ye  that 
whistle  ? " 

3.  At  a  place  called  La  Bastide  I  was  directed  to  leave  the 
river,  and  follow  a  road  that  mounted  on  the  left  among  the  hills 
of  Vivarais,  the  modern  Ard&che  ;  for  I  was  now  come  within  a 
little  way  of  my  strange  destination,  the  Trappist  monastery  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Snows.  The  sun  came  out  as  I  left  the  shelter 
of  a  pine-wood,  and  I  beheld  suddenly  a  fine  wild  landscape  to 
the  south.  High  rocky  hills,  as  blue  as  sapphire,  closed  the  view, 
and  between  these  lay  ridge  upon  ridge,  heathery,  craggy,  the 


346  APPENDIX  a— MODELS. 

sun  glittering  on  veins  of  rock,  the  underwood  clambering  in  the 
hollows,  as  rude  as  God  made  them  at  the  first.  There  was  not  a 
sign  of  man's  hand  in  all  the  prospect ;  and  indeed  not  a  trace  of 
his  passage,  save  where  generation  after  generation  had  walked 
in  twisted  footpaths,  in  and  out  among  the  beeches,  and  up  and 
down  upon  the  channelled  slopes.  The  mists,  which  had  hitherto 
beset  me,  were  now  broken  into  clouds,  and  fled  swiftly  and 
shone  brightly  in  the  sun.  I  drew  a  long  breath.  It  was  grate- 
ful to  come,  after  so  long,  upon  a  scene  of  some  attraction  for  the 
human  heart.  I  own  I  like  definite  form  in  what  my  eyes  are  to 
rest  upon  ;  and  if  landscapes  were  sold,  like  the  sheets  of  charac- 
ters of  my  boyhood,  one  penny  plain  and  twopence  colored,  I 
should  go  to  the  length  of  twopence  every  day  of  my  life. 

4.  But  if  things  had  grown  better  to  the  south,  it  was  still 
desolate  and  inclement  near  at  hand.  A  spidery  cross  on  every 
hill-top  marked  the  neighborhood  of  a  religious  house  ;  and  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  beyond,  the  outlook  southward  opening  out  and 
growing  bolder  with  every  step,  a  white  statue  of  the  Virgin  at 
the  corner  of  a  young  plantation  directed  the  traveller  to  Our 
Lady  of  the  Snoivs.  Here,  then,  I  struck  leftward,  and  pursued 
my  way,  driving  my  secular  donkey  before  me,  and  creaking  in 
my  .secular  boots  and  gaiters,  towards  the  asylum  of  silence. 

5.  I  had  not  gone  very  far  ere  the  wind  brought  to  me  the 
clanging  of  a  bell,  and  somehow,  I  can  scarce  tell  why,  my  heart 
sank  within  me  at  the  sound.  I  have  rarely  approached  anything 
with  more  unaffected  terror  than  the  monastery  of  Our  Lady  of 
the  Snows.  This  it  is  to  have  had  a  Protestant  education.  And 
suddenly,  on  turning  a  corner,  fear  took  hold  on  me  from  head 
to  foot — slavish  superstitious  fear  ;  and  though  I  did  not  stop  in 
my  advance,  yet  I  went  on  slowly,  like  a  man  who  should  have 
passed  a  bourne  unnoticed,  and  strayed  into  the  country  of  the 
dead.  For  there  upon  the  narrow  new-made  road,  between  the 
stripling  pines,  was  a  media3val  friar,  fighting  with  a  barrowful 
of  turfs.  Every  Sunday  of  my  childhood  I  used  to  study  the 
Hermits  of  Marco  Sadeler — enchanting  prints,  full  of  wood  and 
field  and  mediaeval  landscapes,  as  large  as  a  county,  for  the 
imagination  to  go  a-travelling  in  ;  and  here,  sure  enough,  was 
one  of  Marco  Sadeler's  heroes.  He  was  robed  in  white  like  any 
spectre,  and  the  hood  falling  back  in  the  instancy  of  his  conten- 


XIX.    FATHER  APOLLINAIUS.  347 

tion  with  the  barrow,  disclosed  a  pate  as  bald  and  yellow  as  a 
skull.  He  might  have  been  buried  any  time  these  thousand 
years,  and  all  the  lively  parts  of  him  resolved  into  earth  and 
broken  up  with  the  farmer's  barrow. 

6.  I  was  troubled  besides  in  my  mind  as  to  etiquette.  Durst  I 
address  a  person  who  was  under  a  vow  of  silence  ?  Clearly  not. 
But  drawing  near,  I  doffed  my  cap  to  him  with  a  far-away  super- 
stitious reverence.  He  nodded  back,  and  cheerfully  addressed 
me.  Was  I  going  to  the  monastery  ?  Who  was  I?  An  English- 
man ?    Ah,  an  Irishman,  then  ? 

"  No,"  I  said,  "  a  Scotsman."' 

7.  A  Scotsman  ?  Ah,  he  had  never  seen  a  Scotsman  before. 
And  he  looked  me  all  over,  his  good,  honest,  brawny  counte- 
nance shining  with  interest,  as  a  boy  might  look  upon  a  lion  or  an 
alligator.  From  him  I  learned  with  disgust  that  I  could  not  be 
received  at  Our  Lady  of  the  Siwivs ;  I  might  get  a  meal  per- 
haps, but  that  was  all.  And  then,  as  our  talk  ran  on,  and  it 
turned  out  that  I  was  not  a  pedlar,  but  a  literary  man,  who  drew 
landscapes  and  was  going  to  write  a  book,  he  changed  his  manner 
of  thinking  as  to  my  reception  (for  I  fear  they  respect  persons 
even  in  a  Trappist  monastery),  and  told  me  I  must  be  sure  to  ask 
for  the  Father  Prior,  and  state  my  case  to  him  in  full.  On 
second  thoughts  he  determined  to  go  down  with  me  himself  ;  he 
thought  he  could  manage  for  me  better.  Might  he  say  that  I  was 
a  geographer  ? 

No  ;  I  thought,  in  the  interests  of  truth,  he  positively  might 
not. 

"  Very  well,  then  "  (with  disappointment),  "  an  author." 

8.  It  appeared  he  had  been  in  a  seminary  with  six  young  Irish- 
men, all  priests  long  since,  who  had  received  newspapers  and 
kept  him  informed  of  the  state  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  England. 
And  he  asked  me  eagerly  after  Dr.  Pusey,  for  whose  conversion 
the  good  man  had  continued  ever  since  to  pray  night  and 
morning. 

"  I  thought  he  was  very  near  the  truth,"  he  said  ;  "  and  he 
will  reach  it  yet  ;  there  is  so  much  virtue  in  prayer." 

9.  He  must  be  a  stiff  ungodly  Protestant  w'ho  can  take  any- 
thing but  pleasure  in  this  kind  and  hopeful  story.  While  he  was 
thus  near  the  subject,   the  good  father  asked  me  if  I  were  a 


348  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

Christian  ;  and  when  lie  found  I  was  not,  or  not  after  his  way, 
he  glossed  it  over  with  great  good-will. 

10.  The  road  which  we  were  following,  and  which  this  stalwart 
father  had  made  with  his  own  two  hands  within  the  space  of  a 
year,  came  to  a  corner,  and  showed  us  some  white  buildings  a 
little  further  on  beyond  the  wood.  At  the  same  time,  the  bell 
once  more  sounded  abroad.  We  were  hard  upon  the  monastery. 
Father  Apollinaris  (for  that  was  my  companion's  name)  stopped 
me. 

"I  must  not  speak  to  you  down  there,"  he  said.  "Ask  for 
the  Brother  Porter,  and  all  will  be  well.  But  try  to  see  me  as 
you  go  out  again  through  the  wood,  where  I  may  speak  to  you.  I 
am  charmed  to  have  made  your  acquaintance." 

And  then  suddenly  raising  his  arms,  flapping  his  fingers,  and 
crying  out  twice,  "  I  must  not  speak,  I  must  not  speak  !  "  he  ran 
away  in  front  of  me,  and  disappeared  into  the  monastery-door. 

11.  I  own  this  somewhat  ghastly  eccentricity  went  a  good  way 
to  revive  my  terrors.  But  where  one  was  so  good  and  simple, 
why  should  not  all  be  alike  ?  I  took  heart  of  grace,  and  went 
forward  to  the  gate  as  fast  as  Modestine,  who  seemed  to  have  a 
disaffection  for  monasteries,  would  permit.  It  was  the  first  door, 
in  my  acquaintance  of  her,  which  she  had  not  shown  an  indecent 
haste  to  enter.  I  summoned  the  place  in  form,  though  with  a 
quaking  heart.  Father  Michael,  the  Father  Hospitaller,  and  a 
pair  of  brown-robed  brothers  came  to  the  gate  and  spoke  with  me 
awhile.  I  think  my  sack  was  the  great  attraction;  it  had  already 
beguiled  the  heart  of  poor  Apollinaris,  who  had  charged  me  on 
my  life  to  show  it  to  the  Father  Prior.  But  whether  it  was  my 
address,  or  the  sack,  or  the  idea  speedily  published  among  that 
part  of  the  brotherhood  who  attend  on  strangers  that  I  was  not  a 
pedlar  after  all,  I  found  no  difficulty  as  to  my  reception.  Mo- 
destine was  led  away  by  a  layman  to  the  stables,  and  I  and  my 
pack  were  received  into  Our  Lady  of  the  Snows. — R.  L.  Steven- 
son :  Travels  with  a  Donkey. 

XX.    Party  in  American  Politics. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  party  government  under  the  constitu- 
tion, Washington  said  of  party  spirit,  "  It  exists  under  different 


XX.    PARTY  IN  AMERICAN  POLITICS.  340 

shapes  in  all  governments,  more  or  less  stifled,  controlled,  or  re- 
pressed ;  but  in  those  of  popular  form,  it  is  seen  in  its  greatest 
rankness  and  is  truly  their  worst  enemy."  The  experience  of  a 
century  has  justified  Washington's  words.  The  superstition  of 
divine  right  has  passed  from  a  king  to  a  party,  and  the  old  fiction 
of  the  law  in  monarchy  that  the  king  can  do  no  wrong  has  become 
the  practical  faith  of  great  multitudes  in  this  republic  in  regard 
to  party.  Armed  with  the  arbitrary  power  of  patronage,  party 
overbears  the  free  expression  of  the  popular  will  and  entrenches 
itself  in  illicit  power.  It  makes  the  whole  civil  service  a  drilled 
and  disciplined  army  whose  living  depends  upon  carrying  elec- 
tions at  any  cost  for  the  party  which  controls  it.  Patronage  has 
but  to  capture  the  local  primary  meeting  and  it  commands  the 
whole  party  organization.  Every  member  of  the  party  must  sub- 
mit or  renounce  his  party  allegiance,  and  with  it  the  gratification 
of  his  political  ambition,  and  such  is  the  malign  force  of  party 
spirit  that  in  what  seems  to  him  a  desperate  alternative  he  often 
supports  men  whom  he  distrusts  and  methods  which  he  despises 
lest  his  party  should  be  defeated.  He  takes  practically  the  posi- 
tion that  party  loyalty  requires  him  to  support  one  party  with  bad 
measures  and  unfit  candidates  rather  than  risk  the  success  of  an- 
other party  with  good  measures  and  suitable  men. 

2.  This  devotion  of  party,  not  to  the  ends  for  which  it  exists 
but  to  the  spoils  that  accompany  success  at  the  polls,  has  become 
so  absolute  that  it  has  produced  an  evil  greater  than  any  which 
party  proposes  to  remedy.  In  order  to  secure  and  maintain  party 
power,  a  corruption  has  been  introduced  which  involves  not  only 
the  whole  system  of  our  politics,  but  the  character  of  the  people. 
It  is  a  corruption  so  general  and  so  familiar  that  an  amendment 
to  the  constitution  is  proposed  in  Congress,  which  contemplates 
the  election  of  Senators  of  the  United  States  by  the  popular  vote 
of  the  State  instead  of  the  vote  of  the  Legislature,  and  the  argu- 
'oaent  gravely  urged  for  the  amendment  is  that  it  is  harder  to  cor- 
rupt the  whole  people  than  to  buy  a  legislature.  Familiar  inci- 
dents of  the  last  Presidential  campaign,  the  collection  of  an 
immense  sum  of  money  by  party  managers  to  be  spent  without 
audit  or  accounting  of  any  kind,  and  the  general  public  conviction 
that  it  was  a  simple  corruption  fund  not  only  spent  for  illicit  pur- 
poses, but  by  which  high  office  was  bought,  and  the  equally  gen- 


350  APPENDIX  C. -MODELS 

eral  conviction  that  if  the  other  party  could  have  procured  the 
same  sum  of  money  it  would  have  done  the  same  thing,  show  how 
wide-spread  the  evil  has  become. 

3.  A  New  York  morning  paper  of  the  highest  character  recently 
published  a  remark  of  a  conspicuous  politician  whose  name  was 
given,  that  "  two-fifths  of  the  Democratic  voters  of  the  State  are 
represented  in  conventions  by  delegates  selected  by  the  heads  of 
the  various  departments  in  New  York  and  Kings  County,"  that 
is  to  say  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  An  evening 
paper  of  the  same  day,  speaking  of  the  Republican  nomination  for 
the  Governorship  in  Rhode  Island,  said,  ''It  is  notorious  in  the 
State  that  every  Republican  candidate  must  pay  for  his  honor,  and 
the  price  has  heretofore  ranged  from  $20,000  to  $40,000.  ...  It 
has  frequently  happened  that  a  second  assessment  has  been  neces- 
sary when  the  election  by  the  people  has  failed  and  the  choice  has 
fallen  upon  the  Legislature."  These  statements  are  not  disputed 
and  they  are  not  doubted.  They  are  read  languidly  by  many 
readers  as  illustrations  of  the  rottenness  of  politics.  They  are 
read  with  alarm  by  many  others  as  signs  of  a  taint  that  will  rot 
the  whole  system  if  not  extirpated.  The  wa-ong  is  not  peculiar  to 
any  party,  for  its  source  is  the  party  spirit  which  all  parties  stim- 
ulate and  Washington  foresaw.  The  Pot  indeed  solemnly  rebukes 
the  Kettle,  but  when  traders  in  mules  denounce  traders  in  blocks 
of  five  for  political  corruption,  we  instinctively  recall  the  legend- 
ary Roman  augurs  and  the  stage  direction  in  Robert  the  Devil, 
"  infernal  laughter." 

4.  This  monstrous  development  of  the  party  system  in  a  Re- 
public, while  it  might  have  been  vaguely  anticipated,  could  not 
have  been  definitely  foreseen.  The  American  who  had  served 
under  Washington  in  the  field  and  had  voted  for  him  as  Presi- 
dent, although  he  may  have  seen  in  the  malice  of  the  opposition 
newspapers  the  adder  tongue  of  faction,  would  have  smiled  to 
hear  the  suggestion  that  in  Republican  America,  the  party  pro- 
scriptions and  excesses  of  Athens  and  Rome  and  Florence,  without 
the  slaughter,  might  be  revived  and  repeated.  Still  less  would  it 
occur  to  him  that  a  Civil  Service  which  a  century  ago  in  the  whole 
Union  included  only  two  hundred  and  nine  post-masters  and  a 
handful  of  other  officers,  whose  tenure  was  their  fidelity  and  efii- 
ciency,  would  suddenly  rise  like  the  Afrite  from  the  casket  in  the 


XX    PARTY  m  AMERICAN  POLITICS.         351 

Arabian  tale,  into  a  gigantic  and  towering  form,  but  still  the 
supple  slave  of  reckless  party  power.  The  increase  of  population, 
the  vast  alien  addition  to  the  native  stock,  the  universal  extension 
of  male  adult  suffrage,  the  growth  of  great  cities  of  heterogeneous 
citizenship,  the  opening  of  enormous  opportunities  of  contracts 
and  political  money  making,  the  vast  consolidations  of  capital 
not  hesitating  to  attempt  for  their  purposes  the  bribei-y  of  legisla- 
tures, the  paralysis  of  the  national  conscience  for  a  generation  in 
the  defense  by  a  great  political  party  of  a  huge  moral  wrong,  and 
finally  a  long  and  relentless  civil  war, — all  these  were  yet  to  come, 
and  their  relation  to  an  enormous  increase  of  public  patronage, 
and  their  influence  upon  the  party  system,  could  not  be  foretold. 
5.  These  results,  however,  are  now  evident.  What  our  fathers 
could  not  guess,  we  can  see.  Party,  which  is  properly  simply  the 
organization  of  citizens  who  agree  in  their  views  of  public  policy 
to  secure  the  enactment  of  their  views  in  law,  has  become  what 
is  well  called  a  machine,  which  controls  the  political  action  of 
millions  of  citizens  who  vote  for  candidates  that  the  machine  se- 
lects and  for  measures  which  the  machine  dictates  or  approves. 
Servility  to  party  takes  the  place  of  individual  independence  of 
action.  So  completely  does  it  consume  political  manhood  that 
like  men  suddenly  hurried  from  their  warm  beds  into  the  night 
air,  shivering  and  chattering  in  the  cold,  even  intelligent  citizens 
who  have  protested  against  their  j^arty  machine  as  fraudulent 
and  false,  and  an  organized  misrepresentation  of  the  party  con- 
viction and  will,  declare  that  if  their  protest  against  the  power  of 
fraud  and  corruption  does  not  avail  and  the  party  commands 
them  to  yield,  they  will  bow  the  head  and  bend  the  knee  in  loyalty 
to  fraud  and  corruption.  The  despotism  of  the  machine  is  so  ab- 
solute and  the  triumph  of  the  party  so  supersedes  the  reason  and 
person  of  the  party,  that  we  have  now  reached  a  point  in  our 
political  development,  when  upon  the  most  vital  and  pressing 
public  questions  parties  do  not  even  know  their  own  opinions,  and 
factions  of  the  same  party  wrangle  fiercely  to  determine  by  a 
majority  what  the  party  thinks  and  proposes.  Meanwhile  so 
completely  has  the  conception  of  party,  as  merely  a  convenient 
but  clumsy  agent  to  promote  certain  public  objects,  disappeared, 
that  one  of  the  chief  journals  of  the  country  recently  remarked, 
with  entire  gravity,  that  it  found  "  no  fault  with  conscientious 


352  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

independence  in  politics,"  which  was  like  announcing  with  lofty 
forbearance  that  as  a  philosophic  moralist,  it  found  no  fault  with 
truth-telling  or  honest  dealing. — George  William  Curtis  :  Party 
and  Patronage. 


XXI.    The  Practical  Value  of  Biological  Science. 

1.  If  what  has  been  said  as  to  the  position  and  scope  of  Biology 
be  correct,  our  third  question — What  is  the  practical  value  of 
physiological  instruction  ? — might,  one  would  think,  be  left  to  an- 
swer itself. 

2.  On  other  grounds  even,  were  mankind  deserving  of  the  title 
"rational,"  which  they  arrogate  to  themselves,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  they  would  consider,  as  the  most  necessary  of  all 
branches  of  instruction  for  themselves  and  for  their  children, 
that  which  professes  to  acquaint  them  with  the  conditions  of  the 
existence  they  prize  so  highly — which  teaches  them  how  to  avoid 
disease  and  to  cherish  health,  in  themselves  and  those  who  are 
dear  to  them. 

3.  I  am  addressing,  I  imagine,  an  audience  of  educated  per- 
sons ;  and  yet  I  dare  venture  to  assert  that,  with  the  exception 
of  those  of  my  hearers  who  may  chance  to  have  received  a  medi- 
cal education,  there  is  not  one  who  could  tell  me  what  is  the 
meaning  and  use  of  an  act  which  he  performs  a  score  of  times 
every  minute,  and  whose  suspension  would  involve  his  immediate 
death  ; — I  mean  the  act  of  breathing — or  who  could  state  in  pre- 
cise terms  why  it  is  that  a  confined  atmosphere  is  injurious  to 
health. 

4.  T\\Q  practical  value  of  Physiological  knowledge  !  Why  is  it 
that  educated  men  can  be  found  to  maintain  that  a  slaughter- 
house in  the  midst  of  a  great  city  is  rather  a  good  thing  than 
otherwise  ? — that  mothers  persist  in  exposing  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  surface  of  their  children  to  the  cold,  by  the  absurd 
style  of  dress  they  adopt,  and  then  marvel  at  the  peculiar  dispen- 
sation of  Providence,  which  removes  their  infants  by  bronchitis 
and  gastric  fever  ?  Why  is  it  that  quackery  rides  rampant  over 
the  land;  and  that  not  long  ago,  one  of  the  largest  public  rooms 
in  this  great  city  could  be  filled  by  an  audience  gravely  listening 


XXI.     BIOLOGICAL  SCIENCE.  353 

to  the  reverend  expositor  of  the  doctrine — that  the  simple  phy- 
siological phenomena  known  as  spirit-rapping,  table-turning, 
plireno-magnetism,  and  I  know  not  what  other  absurd  and  in- 
appropriate names,  are  due  to  the  direct  and  personal  agency  of 
Satan  ? 

5.  "Why  is  all  this,  except  from  the  utter  ignorance  as  to  the 
simplest  laws  of  their  own  animal  life,  which  prevails  among 
even  the  most  highly  educated  persons  in  this  country  ? 

6.  But  there  are  other  branches  of  Biological  Science,  besides 
Physiology  proper,  whose  practical  infuence,  though  less  obvious, 
is  not,  as  I  believe,  less  certain.  I  have  heard  educated  men 
speak  with  an  ill-disguised  contempt  of  the  studies  of  the  natu- 
ralist, and  ask,  not  without  a  shrug,  ' '  What  is  the  use  of  know- 
ing all  about  these  miserable  animals — what  bearing  has  it  on 
human  life  ?  "  I  will  endeavor  to  answer  that  question.  I  take 
it  that  all  will  admit  there  is  definite  Government  of  this  universe 
— that  its  pleasures  and  pains  are  not  scattered  at  random,  but 
are  distributed  in  accordance  with  orderly  and  fixed  laws,  and 
that  it  is  only  in  accordance  with  all  we  know  of  the  rest  of  the 
world,  that  there  should  be  an  agreement  between  one  portion  of 
the  sensitive  creation  and  another  in  these  matters. 

7.  Surely  then  it  interests  us  to  know  the  lot  of  other  animal 
creatures — however  far  below  us,  they  are  still  the  sole  created 
things  which  share  with  us  the  capability  of  pleasure  and  the 
susceptibility  to  pain. 

8.  I  cannot  but  think  that  he  who  finds  a  certain  proportion  of 
pain  and  evil  inseparably  woven  up  in  the  life  of  the  very  worms, 
will  bear  his  own  share  with  more  courage  and  submission  ;  and 
will,  at  any  rate,  view  with  suspicion  those  weakly  amiable  theo- 
ries of  the  Divine  government,  which  would  have  us  believe  pain 
to  be  an  oversight  and  a  mistake,— to  be  corrected  by  and  by. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  predominance  of  happiness  among  living 
things — their  lavish  beauty — the  secret  and  wonderful  harmony 
which  pervades  them  all,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  are 
equally  striking  refutations  of  that  modern  Manichean  doctrine, 
which  exhibits  the  world  as  a  slave-mill,  worked  with  many  tears, 
for  mere  utilitarian  ends. 

9.  There  is  yet  another  way  in  which  natural  history  may,  I 
am  convinced,  take  a  profound  hold  upon  practical  life, — and 


354  APPENDIX  C.-MODELS. 

that  is,  by  its  influence  over  our  finer  feelings,  as  the  greatest  of 
all  sources  of  that  pleasure  which  is  derivable  from  beauty.  I  do 
not  pretend  that  natural-history  knowledge,  as  such,  can  increase 
our  sense  of  the  beautiful  in  natural  objects.  I  do  not  suppose 
that  the  dead  soul  of  Peter  Bell,  of  whom  the  great  poet  of  nature 
says,— 

A  primrose  by  the  river's  brim, 
A  yellow  primi-ose  was  to  him, — 
And  it  was  notliing  more, — 

would  have  been  a  whit  roused  from  its  apathy  by  the  informa- 
tion that  the  primrose  is  a  Dicotyledonous  Exogen,  with  a  mono- 
petalous  corolla  and  central  placentation.  But  I  advocate  natu- 
ral-history knowledge  from  this  point  of  view,  because  it  would 
lead  us  to  seek  the  beauties  of  natural  objects,  instead  of  trusting 
to  chance  to  force  them  on  our  attention.  To  a  person  unin- 
structed  in  natural  history,  his  country  or  sea-side  stroll  is  a 
walk  through  a  gallery  filled  with  wonderful  works  of  art,  nine- 
tenths  of  which  have  their  faces  turned  to  the  wall.  Teach  him 
something  of  natural  history,  and  you  place  in  his  hands  a  cata- 
logue of  those  which  are  worth  turning  round.  Surely  our  inno- 
cent pleasures  are  not  so  abundant  in  this  life,  that  we  can  afford 
to  despise  this  or  any  other  source  of  them.  We  should  fear 
being  banished  for  our  neglect  to  that  limbo,  where  the  great 
Florentine  tells  us  are  those  who,  during  this  life,  "wept  when 
they  might  be  joyful." — Thomas  H.  Huxley  :  Address  On  the 
Educational  Value  of  Natural  History  Sciences. 


XXII.     Lord  Clive  and  His,  First  Visit  to  India. 

1.  TTe  have  always  thought  it  strange  that,  while  the  history 
of  the  Spanish  empire  in  America  is  familiarly  known  to  all  the 
nations  of  Europe,  the  great  actions  of  our  countrymen  in  the  East 
should,  even  among  ourselves,  e.xcite  little  interest.  Every  school- 
boy knows  who  imprisoned  Montezuma,  and  who  strangled  Ata- 
hualpa.  But  we  doubt  whether  one  in  ten,  even  among  English 
gentlemen  of  highly  cultivated  minds,  can  tell  who  won  the  battle 
of  Buxar,  who  perpetrated  the  massacre  of  Patna,  whetlier  Sura- 


XXII.     LORD   CLIVE.  355 

jail  Dowlah  ruled  in  Oude  oi*  in  Ti'avancore,  or  whether  Holkra 
was  a  Hindoo  or  a  Mussulman.  Yet  the  victories  of  Cortes  were 
gained  over  savages  who  had  no  letters  ;  who  were  ignorant  of 
the  use  of  metals  ;  who  had  not  broken  in  a  single  animal  to 
labor  ;  who  wielded  no  better  weapons  than  those  which  could 
be  made  out  of  sticks,  flints,  and  tish-boiies  ;  who  regarded  a 
horse-soldier  as  a  monster,  half  man  and  half  beast  ;  who  took  a 
harquebusier  for  a  sorcerer,  able  to  scatter  the  thunder  and  light- 
ning of  the  skies.  The  people  of  India,  when  we  subdued  them, 
were  ten  times  as  numerous  as  the  Americans  whom  the  Span- 
iards vanquished,  and  were  at  the  same  time  quite  as  highly  civ- 
ilized as  the  victorious  Spaniards.  They  had  reared  cities  larger 
and  fairer  than  Saragossa  or  Toledo,  and  buildings  more  beautiful 
and  costly  than  the  cathedral  of  Seville.  They  could  show  bank- 
ers richer  than  the  richest  firms  of  Barcelona  or  Cadiz,  viceroys 
whose  splendor  far  surpassed  that  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
myriads  of  cavalry  and  long  trains  of  artillery  which  would  have 
astonished  the  Great  Captain.  It  might  have  been  expected,  that 
every  Englishman  who  takes  any  interest  in  any  part  of  history 
would  be  cui'ious  to  know  how  a  handful  of  his  countrymen,  sep- 
arated from  their  home  by  an  immense  ocean,  subjugated  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  one  of  the  greatest  empires  in  the  world. 
Yet,  unless  we  greatly  err,  this  subject  is,  to  most  readers,  not 
only  insipid  but  positively  distasteful. 

2.  Perhaps  the  fault  lies  partly  with  the  historians.  Mr.  Mill's 
book,  though  it  has  undoubtedly  great  and  rare  merit,  is  not  suf- 
ficiently animated  and  picturesque  to  attract  those  who  read  for 
amusement.  Orme,  inferior  to  no  English  historian  in  style  and 
power  of  painting,  is  minute  even  to  tediousness.  In  one  volume 
he  allots,  on  an  average,  a  closely  printed  quarto  page  to  the  events 
of  every  forty-eight  hours.  The  consequence  is,  that  his  narra- 
tive, though  one  of  the  most  authentic  and  one  of  the  most  finely 
written  in  our  language,  has  never  been  very  popular,  and  is  now 
scarcely  ever  read. 

3.  We  fear  that  the  volumes  before  us  will  not  much  attract 
those  readers  whom  Orme  and  Mill  have  repelled.  The  mate- 
rials placed  at  the  disposal  of  Sir  John  Malcolm  by  the  late  Lord 
Powis  were  indeed  of  great  value.  But  we  cannot  say  that  they 
have  been  very  skilfully  worked  up.   It  would,  however,  be  unjust 


356  APPENDIX  a— MODELS. 

to  criticise  with  severity  a  work  which,  if  the  author  had  lived 
to  complete  and  revise  it,  would  probably  have  been  improved  by 
condensation  and  by  a  better  arrangement.  We  arc  more  disposed 
to  perform  the  pleasing  duty  of  expressing  our  gratitude  to  the 
noble  family  to  which  the  public  owes  so  much  useful  and  curious 
information. 

4.  The  effect  of  the  book,  even  when  we  make  the  largest  al- 
lowance for  the  partiality  of  those  who  have  furnished  and  of 
those  who  have  digested  the  materials,  is,  on  the  whole,  greatly 
to  raise  the  character  of  Lord  Clive.  We  are  far  indeed  from 
sympathizing  with  Sir  John  Malcolm,  whose  love  passes  the  love 
of  biographers,  and  who  can  see  nothing  but  wisdom  and  justice 
in  the  actions  of  his  idol.  But  we  are  at  least  equally  far  from 
concurring  in  the  severe  judgment  of  Mr.  Mill,  who  seems  to  us 
to  show  less  discrimination  in  his  account  of  Clive  than  in  any 
other  part  of  his  valuable  work.  Clive,  like  most  men  who  are 
born  with  strong  passions,  and  tried  by  strong  temptations,  com- 
mitted great  faults.  But  every  person  who  takes  a  fair  and  en- 
lightened view  of  his  whole  career  must  admit  that  our  island,  so 
fertile  in  heroes  and  statesmen,  has  scarcely  ever  produced  a  man 
more  truly  great  either  in  arms  or  in  council. 

5.  The  Clives  had  been  settled,  ever  since  the  twelfth  century,  on 
an  estate  of  no  great  value,  near  Market-Dray  ton,  in  Shropshire. 
In  the  reign  of  George  the  First,  this  moderate  but  ancient  inher- 
itance was  possessed  by  Mr.  Richard  Clive,  who  seems  to  have 
been  a  plain  man  of  no  great  tact  or  capacity.  He  had  been  bred 
to  the  law,  and  divided  his  time  between  professional  business 
and  the  avocations  of  a  small  proprietor.  He  married  a  lady 
from  Manchester,  of  the  name  of  Gaskill,  and  became  the  father 
of  a  very  numerous  family.  His  eldest  son,  Robert,  the  founder 
of  the  British  empire  in  India,  was  born  at  the  old  seat  of  his  an- 
cestors on  the  29th  of  September,  1725. 

6.  Some  lineaments  of  the  character  of  the  man  were  early  dis- 
cerned in  the  child.  There  remain  letters  written  by  his  relations 
when  he  was  in  his  seventh  year  ;  and  from  these  letters  it  appears 
that,  even  at  this  early  age,  his  strong  will  and  his  fiery  passions, 
sustained  by  a  constitutional  intrepidity  which  sometimes  seemed 
hardly  compatible  with  soundness  of  mind,  had  begun  to  cause 
great  uneasiness  to  his  family.    "Fighting,"  says  one  of  his  uncles, 


XXII.     LORD   OLIVE.  357 

"  to  which  he  is  out  of  measure  addicted,  gives  his  temper  such  a 
fierceness  and  imperiousness,  that  he  flies  out  on  every  trifling 
occasion."  The  old  people  of  the  neighborhood  still  remember  to 
liave  heard  from  their  parents  how  Bob  Clive  climbed  to  the  top 
of  the  lofty  steeple  of  Market-Drayton,  and  with  what  terror  the 
inhabitants  saw  him  seated  on  a  stone  spout  near  the  summit. 
They  also  relate  how  he  formed  all  the  idle  lads  of  the  town  into 
a  kind  of  predatory  army,  and  compelled  the  shopkeepers  to  sub- 
mit to  a  tribute  of  apples  and  halfpence,  in  consideration  of  which 
he  guaranteed  the  security  of  their  windows.  He  was  sent  from 
school  to  school,  making  very  little  progress  in  his  learning,  and 
gaining  for  himself  everywhere  the  character  of  an  exceedingly 
naughty  boy.  One  of  his  masters,  it  is  said,  was  sagacious 
enough  to  prophesy  that  the  idle  lad  would  make  a  great  figure  in 
the  world.  But  the  general  opinion  seems  to  have  been  that  poor 
Robert  was  a  dunce,  if  not  a  reprobate.  His  family  expected 
nothing  good  from  such  slender  parts  and  such  a  headstrong  tem- 
per. It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  they  gladly  accepted  for 
him,  when  he  was  in  his  eighteenth  year,  a  writership  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company,  and  shipped  him  off  to  make  a 
fortune  or  to  die  of  a  fever  at  Madras. 

7.  Far  different  were  the  prospects  of  Clive  from  those  of  the 
youths  whom  the  East  India  College  now  annually  sends  to  the 
Presidencies  of  our  Asiatic  empire.  The  Company  was  then 
purely  a  trading  corporation.  Its  territory  consisted  of  a  few 
square  miles,  for  which  rent  was  paid  to  the  native  governments. 
Its  troops  were  scarcely  numerous  enough  to  man  the  batteries 
of  three  or  four  ill-constructed  forts,  which  had  been  erected  for 
the  protection  of  the  warehouses.  The  natives,  who  composed  a 
considerable  part  of  these  little  garrisons,  had  not  yet  been 
trained  in  the  discipline  of  Europe,  and  were  armed,  some  with 
swords  and  shields,  some  with  bows  and  arrows.  Tlie  business 
of  the  servant  of  the  Company  was  not,  as  now,  to  conduct  the 
judicial,  financial,  and  diplomatic  business  of  a  great  country; 
but  to  take  stock,  to  make  advances  to  weavers,  to  ship  cargoes, 
and  above  all  to  keep  an  eye  on  private  traders  who  dared  to 
infringe  the  monopoly.  The  younger  clerks  were  so  miserably 
paid  that  they  could  scarcely  subsist  without  incurring  debt ;  the 
elder  enriched  themselves  by  trading  on  their  own  account ;  and 


358  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

those  ^vho  lived  to  rise  to  the  top  of  the  service  often  accumu- 
lated considerable  fortunes. 

8.  Madras,  to  which  Clive  had  been  appointed,  was,  at  this 
time,  perhaps,  the  first  in  importance  of  the  Company's  settle- 
ments. In  the  preceding  century,  Fort  St.  George  had  arisen  on 
a  barren  spot  beaten  by  a  raging  surf  ;  and  in  the  neighborhood 
a  town,  inhabited  by  many  thousands  of  natives,  had  sprung  up, 
as  towns  spring  up  in  the  East,  with  the  rapidity  of  the  prophet's 
gourd.  There  were  already  in  the  suburbs  many  white  villas, 
each  surrounded  by  its  garden,  whither  the  wealthy  agents  of 
the  Company  retired,  after  the  labors  of  the  desk  and  the  ware- 
house, to  enjoy  the  cool  breeze  which  springs  up  at  sunset  from 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  habits  of  these  mercantile  grandees 
appear  to  have  been  more  profuse,  hixurious,  and  ostentations, 
than  those  of  the  high  judicial  and  political  functionaries  who 
have  succeeded  them.  But  comfort  was  far  less  understood. 
Many  devices  which  now  mitigate  the  heat  of  the  climate,  pre- 
serve health,  and  prolong  life,  were  unknown.  There  was  far 
less  intercourse  with  Europe  than  at  present.  The  voyage  by  the 
Cape,  which  in  our  time  has  often  been  performed  within  three 
months,  was  then  very  seldom  accomplished  iu  six,  and  was 
sometimes  protracted  to  more  than  a  year.  Consequently,  the 
Anglo-Indian  was  then  much  more  estranged  from  his  country, 
much  more  addicted  to  Oriental  usages,  and  much  less  fitted  to 
mix  in  society  after  his  return  to  Europe,  than  the  Anglo-Indian 
of  the  present  day. 

9.  Within  the  fort  and  its  precinct,  tlie  English  exercised,  by 
permission  of  the  native  government,  an  extensive  authority, 
such  as  every  great  Indian  landowner  exercised  within  his  own 
domain.  But  they  had  never  dreamed  of  claiming  independent 
power.  The  surrounding  country  was  ruled  by  the  Nabob  of  the 
Carnatic,  a  deputy  of  the  Viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  commonly  called 
the  Nizam,  who  was  himself  only  a  deputy  of  the  mighty  prince 
designated  by  our  ancestors  as  the  Great  Mogul.  Those  names, 
once  so  august  and  formidable,  still  remain.  There  is  still  a 
Nabob  of  the  Carnatic,  who  lives  on  a  pension  allowed  to  him  by 
the  English  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  province  which  his  ances- 
tors ruled.  There  is  still  a  Nizam,  whose  capital  is  overawed  by 
a  Britisli  cantonment,  and  to  whom  a  British  resident  gives, 


XXII.    LORD  CLIVE,  359 

under  the  name  of  advice,  commands  which  are  not  to  be  dis- 
puted. There  is  still  a  Mogul,  who  is  permitted  to  play  at  hold- 
ing courts  and  receiving  petitions,  but  who  has  less  power  to  help 
or  hurt  than  the  youngest  civil  servant  of  the  Company. 

10.  Olive's  voyage  was  unusually  tedious  even  for  that  age. 
The  ship  remained  some  months  at  the  Brazils,  where  the  young 
adventurer  picked  up  some  knowledge  of  Portuguese,  and  spent 
all  his  pocket-money.  He  did  not  arrive  in  India  till  more  than 
a  year  after  he  had  left  England.  His  situation  at  Madras  was 
most  painful.  His  funds  were  exhausted.  His  pay  was  small. 
He  had  contracted  debts.  He  was  wretchedly  lodged,  no  small 
calamity  in  a  climate  which  can  be  made  tolerable  to  an  European 
only  by  spacious  and  well-placed  apartments.  He  had  been  fur- 
nished with  letters  of  recommendation  to  a  gentleman  who  might 
have  assisted  him  ;  but  when  he  landed  at  Fort  St.  George  he 
found  that  this  gentleman  had  sailed  for  England.  The  lad's 
shy  and  haughty  disposition  withheld  him  from  introducing  him- 
self to  strangers.  He  was  several  months  in  India  before  he 
became  acquainted  with  a  single  family.  The  climate  affected 
his  health  and  spirits.  His  duties  were  of  a  kind  ill  suited  to  his 
ardent  and  daring  character.  He  pined  for  his  home,  and  in  his 
letters  to  his  relations  expressed  his  feelings  in  language  softer 
and  more  pensive  than  we  should  have  expected  either  from  the 
waywardness  of  his  boyhood,  or  from  the  inflexible  sternness  of 
his  later  years.  "I  have  not  enjoyed,"  .says  he,  "one  happy  day 
since  I  left  my  native  country;"  and  again,  "I  must  confess,  at 
intervals,  when  I  think  of  my  dear  native  England,  it  affects  me 
in  a  very  particular  manner.  ...  If  I  should  be  so  far  blest  as 
to  revisit  again  my  own  country,  but  more  especially  Manchester, 
the  centre  of  all  my  wishes,  all  that  I  could  hope  or  desire  for 
would  be  presented  before  me  in  one  view." 

11.  One  solace  he  found  of  the  most  respectable  kind.  The 
Governor  possessed  a  good  library,  and  permitted  Clive  to  have 
access  to  it.  The  young  man  devoted  much  of  his  leisure  to 
reading,  and  acquired  at  this  time  almost  all  the  knowledge  of 
books  that  he  ever  possessed.  As  a  boy  he  had  been  too  idle,  as 
a  man  he  soon  became  too  busy,  for  literary  pursuits. 

12.  But  neither  climate  nor  poverty,  neither  study  nor  the 
sorrows  of  a  home-sick  exile,  could  tame  the  desperate  audacity 


360  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

of  his  spirit.  He  behaved  to  his  official  superiors  as  he  had 
behaved  to  his  schoolmasters,  and  was  several  times  in  danger  of 
losing  his  situation.  Twice,  while  residing  in  the  Writers'  Build- 
ings, he  attempted  to  destroy  himself  ;  and  twice  the  pistol  which 
he  snapped  at  his  own  head  failed  to  go  off.  This  circumstance,  it 
is  said,  affected  him  as  a  similar  escape  affected  Wallenstein.  After 
satisfying  himself  that  the  pistol  was  really  well  loaded,  he  burst 
forth  into  an  exclamation  that  surely  he  was  reserved  for  some- 
thing great. 

13.  About  this  time  an  event  which  at  first  seemed  likely  to 
destroy  all  his  hopes  in  life  suddenly  opened  before  him  a  new 
path  to  eminence.  Europe  had  been,  during  some  years,  dis- 
tracted by  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession.  George  the 
Second  was  the  steady  ally  of  Maria  Theresa.  The  house  of 
Bourbon  took  the  opposite  side.  Though  England  was  even  then 
the  first  of  maritime  powers,  she  was  not,  as  she  has  since  become, 
more  than  a  match  on  the  sea  for  all  the  nations  of  the  world 
together  ;  and  she  found  it  difficult  to  maintain  a  contest  against 
the  united  navies  of  France  and  Spain.  In  the  eastern  seas 
France  obtained  the  ascendency.  Labourdonnais,  Governor  of 
Mauritius,  a  man  of  eminent  talents  and  virtues,  conducted  an 
expedition  to  the  continent  of  India  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
British  fleet,  landed,  assembled  an  army,  appeared  before  Madras, 
and  compelled  the  town  and  fort  to  capitulate.  Tlie  keys  were 
delivered  up  ;  the  French  colors  were  displayed  on  Fort  St.  George  ; 
and  the  contents  of  the  Company's  warehouses  were  seized  as 
prize  of  war  by  the  conquerors.  It  was  stipulated  by  the  capitu- 
lation that  the  English  inhabitants  should  be  prisoners  of  war  on 
parole,  and  that  the  town  should  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
French  till  it  should  be  ransomed.  Labourdonnais  pledged  his 
honor  that  only  a  moderate  ransom  should  be  required. 

14.  But  the  success  of  Labourdonnais  had  awakened  the 
jealousy  of  his  countryman,  Dupleix,  Governor  of  Pondicherry. 
Dupleix,  moreover,  had  already  begun  to  revolve  gigantic  schemes, 
with  whicli  the  restoration  of  Madras  to  the  English  was  by  no 
means  compatible.  He  declared  that  Labourdonnais  had  gone 
beyond  his  powers  ;  that  conquests  made  by  the  French  arms  on 
the  continent  of  India  were  at  the  disposal  of  the  Governor  of 
Pondicherry  alone  ;    and  that  Madras  should   be  razed   to  the 


XXII.     LORD   CLIVE.  361 

ground.  Labourdonnais  was  compelled  to  yield.  The  anger 
which  the  breach  of  the  capitulation  excited  among  the  English 
was  increased  by  the  ungenerous  manner  in  which  Dupleix  treated 
the  principal  servants  of  the  Company.  The  Governor  and  several 
of  the  first  gentlemen  of  Fort  St.  George  were  carried  under  a 
guard  to  Pondicherry,  and  conducted  through  the  town  in  a 
triumphal  procession,  under  the  eyes  of  fifty  thousand  spectators. 
It  was  with  reason  thought  that  this  gross  violation  of  public 
faith  absolved  the  inhabitants  of  Madras  from  the  engagements 
into  which  they  had  entered  with  Labourdonnais.  Olive  fled  from 
the  town  by  night  in  the  disguise  of  a  Mussulman,  and  took 
refuge  at  Fort  St.  David,  one  of  the  small  English  settlements 
subordinate  to  Madras. 

15.  The  circumstances  in  which  he  was  now  placed  naturally 
led  him  to  adopt  a  profession  better  suited  to  his  restless  and 
intrepid  spirit  than  the  business  of  examining  packages  and  cast- 
ing accounts.  He  solicited  and  obtained  an  ensign's  commission 
in  the  service  of  the  Company,  and  at  twenty-one  entered  on  his 
military  career.  His  personal  courage,  of  which  he  had,  while 
still  a  writer,  given  signal  proof  by  a  desperate  duel  with  a 
military  bully  who  was  the  terror  of  Fort  St.  David,  speedily 
made  him  conspicuous  even  among  hundreds  of  brave  men.  He 
soon  began  to  show  in  his  new  calling  other  qualities  which  had 
not  before  been  discerned  in  him  :  judgment,  sagacity,  deference 
to  legitimate  authority.  He  distinguished  himself  highly  in 
several  operations  against  the  French,  and  was  particularly 
noticed  by  Major  Lawrence,  who  was  then  considered  as  the 
ablest  British  officer  in  India. 

16.  Clive  had  been  only  a  few  months  in  the  army  when  intel- 
ligence arrived  that  peace  had  been  concluded  between  Great 
Britain  and  France.  Dupleix  was  in  consequence  compelled  to 
restore  Madras  to  the  English  Company  ;  and  the  young  ensign 
was  at  liberty  to  resume  his  former  business.  He  did  indeed  return 
for  a  short  time  to  his  desk.  He  again  quitted  it  in  order  to 
assist  Major  Lawrence  in  some  petty  hostilities  with  the  natives, 
and  then  again  returned  to  it.  While  he  was  thus  wavering 
between  a  military  and  a  commercial  life,  events  took  place  which 
decided  his  choice.  The  politics  of  India  assumed  a  new  aspect. 
There  was  peace  between  the  English  and  French  crowns  ;  but 


362  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

there  arose  between  the  English  and  French  companies  trading  to 
the  East  a  war  most  eventful  and  important,— a  war  in  which  the 
prize  was  nothing  less  than  the  magnificent  inheritance  of  the 
house  of  Tamerlane. 

17.  The  empire  which  Baber  and  bis  Moguls  reared  in  the 
sixteenth  century  was  long  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  splen- 
did in  the  world.  In  no  European  kingdom  was  so  large  a 
population  subject  to  a  single  prince,  or  so  large  a  revenue 
poured  into  the  treasury.  The  beauty  and  magnificence  of  the 
buildings  erected  by  the  sovereigns  of  Hindoostan  amazed  even 
travellers  who  had  seen  St.  Peter's.  The  innumerable  retinues 
and  gorgeous  decorations  which  surrounded  the  throne  of  Delhi 
dazzled  even  eyes  which  were  accustomed  to  the  pomp  of  Ver- 
sailles. Some  of  the  great  viceroys,  who  held  their  posts  by  virtue 
of  commissions  from  the  Mogul,  ruled  as  many  subjects  as  the 
King  of  France  or  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  Even  the  deputies 
of  these  deputies  might  well  rank,  as  to  extent  of  territory  and 
amount  of  revenue,  with  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  or  the 
Elector  of  Saxony. 

18.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  great  empire,  powerful 
and  prosperous  as  it  appears  on  a  superficial  view,  was  yet,  even 
in  its  best  days,  far  worse  governed  than  the  worst  governed 
parts  of  Europe  now  are.  The  administration  was  tainted  with 
all  the  vices  of  Oriental  despotism,  and  with  all  the  vices  insepa- 
rable from  the  domination  of  race  over  race.  The  conflicting  pre- 
tensions of  the  princes  of  the  royal  house  produced  a  long  series 
of  crimes  and  public  disasters.  Ambitious  lieutenants  of  the 
sovereign  sometimes  aspired  to  independence.  Fierce  tribes  of 
Hindoos,  impatient  of  a  foreign  yoke,  frequently  withheld  tribute, 
repelled  the  armies  of  the  government  from  the  mountain  fast- 
nesses, and  poured  down  in  arms  on  the  cultivated  plains.  In 
spite,  however,  of  much  constant  maladministration,  in  spite  of 
occasional  convulsions  which  shook  the  whole  frame  of  society, 
this  great  monarchy,  on  the  whole,  retained,  during  some  genera- 
tions, an  outward  appearance  of  unity,  majesty,  and  energy. 
But,  throughout  the  long  reign  of  Aurungzebe,  the  state,  not- 
withstanding all  that  the  vigor  and  policy  of  the  prince  could 
effect,  was  hastening  to  dissolution.  After  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  the  year  1707,  the  ruin  was  fearfully  rapid.     Violent 


XXII.     LORD   CLIVE.  363 

shocks  from  without  cooperated  with  an  incurable  decay  which 
was  fast  proceeding  within ;  and  in  a  few  years  the  empire  had 
undergone  utter  decomposition. 

19.  The  history  of  the  successors  of  Theodosius  bears  no  small 
analogy  to  that  of  the  successors  of  Aurungzebe.  But  perhaps 
the  fall  of  the  Carlovingians  furnishes  the  nearest  parallel  to  the 
fall  of  the  Moguls.  Charlemagne  was  scarcely  interred  when  the 
imbecility  and  the  disputes  of  his  descendants  began  to  bring  con- 
tempt on  themselves  and  destruction  on  their  subjects.  The  wide 
dominion  of  tlie  Franks  was  severed  into  a  thousand  pieces. 
Nothing  more  than  a  nominal  dignity  was  left  to  the  abject  heirs 
of  an  illustrious  name,  Charles  the  Bald,  and  Charles  the  Fat,  and 
Charles  the  Simple.  Fierce  invaders,  differing  from  each  other  in 
race,  language,  and  religion,  flocked,  as  if  by  concert,  from  the 
farthest  corners  of  the  earth,  to  plunder  provinces  which  the  gov- 
ernment could  no  longer  defend.  The  pirates  of  the  Northern 
Sea  extended  their  ravages  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  at 
length  fixed  their  seat  in  the  rich  valley  of  the  Seine.  The  Hun- 
garian, in  whom  the  trembling  monks  fancied  that  they  recog- 
nized tlie  Gog  or  Magog  of  prophecy,  carried  back  the  plunder  of 
the  cities  of  Lombardy  to  the  depths  of  the  Pannonian  forests. 
The  Saracen  ruled  in  Sicily,  desolated  the  fertile  plains  of  Cam- 
pania, and  spread,  terror  even  to  the  walls  of  Rome.  In  the 
midst  of  these  sufferings,  a  great  internal  change  passed  upon  the 
empire.  The  corruption  of  death  began  to  ferment  into  new  forms 
of  life.  While  the  great  body,  as  a  whole,  was  torpid  and  pas- 
sive, every  separate  member  began  to  feel  with  a  sense,  and  to 
move  with  an  energy  all  its  own.  Just  here,  in  the  most  barren 
and  dreary  tract  of  European  history,  all  feudal  privileges,  all 
modern  nobility,  take  their  source.  It  is  to  this  point  that  we 
trace  the  power  of  those  princes  who,  nominally  vassals,  but  really 
independent,  long  governed,  with  the  titles  of  dukes,  marquesses, 
and  counts,  almost  every  part  of  the  dominions  which  had  obeyed 
Charlemagne. 

20.  Such  or  nearly  such  was  the  change  which  passed  on  the 
Mogul  empire  during  the  forty  years  which  followed  the  death  of 
Aurungzebe.  A  succession  of  nominal  sovereigns,  sunk  in  indo- 
lence and  debauchery,  sauntered  away  life  in  secluded  palaces, 
chewing  bang,  fondling  concubines,  and  listening   to  buffoons. 


301  APPENDIX  C.~MODELS. 

A  succession  of  ferocious  invaders  descended  through  the  western 
passes,  to  prey  on  the  defenceless  wealth  of  Hindoostan.  A  Per- 
sian conqueror  crossed  the  Indus,  marched  through  the  gates  of 
Dellii,  and  bore  away  in  triumph  those  treasures  of  which  the 
magnificence  had  astounded  Roe  and  Bernier :  the  Peacock 
Throne,  on  which  the  richest  jewels  of  Golconda  had  been  dis- 
posed by  the  most  skilful  hands  of  Europe  ;  and  the  inestimable 
Mountain  of  Light,  which,  after  many  strange  vicissitudes,  lately 
shone  in  the  Bracelet  of  Runjeet  Sing,  and  is  now  destined  to 
adorn  the  hideous  idol  of  Orissa.  The  Afghan  soon  followed  to 
complete  the  work  of  devastation  which  the  Persian  had  begun. 
The  warlike  tribes  of  Rajpootana  threw  off  the  Mussulman  yoke. 
A  band  of  mercenary  soldiers  occupied  Rohilcund.  The  Seiks 
ruled  on  the  Indus.  The  Jauts  spread  dismay  along  the  Jumna. 
The  highlands  which  border  on  the  western  sea-coast  of  India 
poured  forth  a  yet  more  formidable  race, — a  race  which  was  long 
the  terror  of  every  native  power,  and  whicli,  after  many  desper- 
ate and  doubtful  struggles,  yielded  only  to  the  fortune  and  gen- 
ius of  England.  It  was  under  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe  that  this 
wild  clan  of  plunderers  first  descended  from  their  mountains  ;  and 
soon  after  his  death,  every  corner  of  his  wide  empire  learned  to 
tremble  at  the  mighty  name  of  the  Mahrattas.  Many  fertile  vice- 
royalties  were  entirely  subdued  by  them.  Their  dominions 
stretched  across  the  peninsula  from  sea  to  sea.  Mahratta  cap- 
tains reigned  at  Poonah,  at  Gualior,  in  Guzerat,  in  Berar,  and  in 
Tanjore.  Nor  did  they,  though  they  had  become  great  sovereigns, 
therefore  cease  to  be  freebooters.  They  still  retained  the  preda- 
tory habits  of  their  forefathers.  Every  region  which  was  not 
subject  to  their  rule  was  wasted  by  their  incursions.  Wherever 
their  kettle-drums  were  heard,  the  peasant  threw  his  bag  of  rice 
on  his  shoulder,  hid  his  small  savings  in  his  girdle,  and  fled  with 
his  wife  and  children  to  the  mountains  or  the  jungles,  to  the 
milder  neighborhood  of  the  hyena  and  the  tiger.  Many  provinces 
redeemed  their  harvests  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  ransom. 
Even  the  wretched  phantom  who  still  bore  the  imperial  title 
stooped  to  pay  this  ignominious  black-mail.  The  camp  fires  of 
one  rapacious  leader  were  seen  from  the  walls  of  the  palace  of 
Delhi.  Another,  at  the  head  of  his  innumerable  cavalry,  de- 
scended year  after  year  on  the  rice-fields  of  Bengal.     Even  the 


XXII.     LORD  CI  AVE.  36.^ 

European  factors  trembled  for  their  magazines.  Less  than  a  hun- 
dred years  ago,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  fortify  Calcutta 
against  the  horsemen  of  Berar ;  and  the  name  of  the  Mahratta 
ditch  still  iDrescrves  the  memory  of  the  danger. 

21.  "Wherever  the  viceroys  of  the  Mogul  retained  authority 
they  became  sovereigns.  They  might  still  acknowledge  in  words 
the  superiority  of  the  house  of  Tamerlane  ;  as  a  Count  of  Flan- 
ders or  a  Duke  of  Burgundy  might  have  acknowledged  the  supe- 
riority of  the  most  helpless  driveller  among  the  later  Carlovin- 
gians.  They  might  occasionally  send  to  their  titular  sovereign  a 
complimentary  present,  or  solicit  from  him  a  title  of  honor.  In 
truth,  however,  they  were  no  longer  lieutenants  removable  at 
pleasure,  but  independent  hereditary  princes.  In  this  way  orig- 
inated those  great  Mussulman  hou.ses  which  formerly  ruled  Bengal 
and  the  Carnatic,  and  those  which  still,  though  in  a  state  of  vas- 
salage, exercise  some  of  the  powers  of  royalty  at  Lucknow  and 
Hyderabad. 

23.  In  what  was  this  confusion  to  end  ?  Was  the  strife  to  con- 
tinue during  centuries  ?  Was  it  to  terminate  in  the  rise  of  an- 
other great  monarchy  ?  Was  the  Mussulman  or  the  Mahratta  to 
be  the  Lord  of  India  ?  Was  auotlier  Baber  to  descend  from  the 
mountains,  and  to  lead  the  hardy  tribes  of  Cabul  and  Chorasan 
against  a  wealthier  and  less  warlike  race  ?  None  of  these  events 
seemed  improbable.  But  scarcely  any  man,  however  sagacious, 
would  have  thought  it  possible  that  a  trading  company,  separated 
from  India  by  fifteen  thousand  miles  of  sea,  and  possessing  in 
India  only  a  few  acres  for  purposes  of  commerce,  would,  in  less 
than  a  hundred  years,  spread  its  empire  from  Cape  Comorin  to 
the  eternal  snow  of  the  Himalayas  ;  would  comjjel  Mahratta  and 
Mahommedan  to  forget  their  mutual  feuds  in  common  subjec- 
tion ;  would  tame  down  even  those  wild  races  which  had  resisted 
the  most  powerful  of  the  Moguls  ;  and,  having  united  under  its 
laws  a  hundred  millions  of  subjects,  would  carry  its  victorious 
arms  far  to  the  east  of  the  Burrampooter,  and  far  to  the  west  of 
the  Hydaspes,  dictate  terms  of  peace  at  the  gates  of  Ava,  and 
seat  its  vassal  on  the  throne  of  Candahar. 

23.  The  man  who  first  saw  that  it  was  possible  to  found  a 
European  empire  on  the  ruins  of  the  Mogul  monarchy  was 
Dupleix.  His  restless,  capacious,  and  inventive  mind  had  formed 


866  APPENDIX  C— MODELS. 

this  scheme,  at  a  time  when  the  ablest  servants  of  the  Englisli 
Company  were  busied  only  about  invoices  and  bills  of  lading. 
Nor  had  he  only  proposed  to  himself  the  end.  He  had  also  a  just 
and  distinct  view  of  the  means  by  which  it  was  to  be  attained. 
He  clearly  saw  that  the  greatest  force  which  the  princes  of  India 
could  bring  into  the  field  would  be  no  match  for  a  small  body  of 
men  trained  in  the  discipline,  and  guided  by  the  tactics,  of  the 
West.  He  saw  also  that  the  natives  of  India  might,  under  Euro- 
pean commanders,  be  formed  into  armies,  such  as  Saxe  or 
Frederic  would  be  proud  to  command.  He  was  perfectly  aware 
that  the  most  easy  and  convenient  way  in  which  an  European 
adventurer  could  exercise  sovereignty  in  India,  was  to  govern  the 
motions,  and  to  speak  through  the  mouth  of  some  glittering 
puppet  dignified  by  the  title  of  Nabob  or  Nizam.  The  arts  both 
of  war  and  i)olicy,  which  a  few  years  later  were  employed  with 
such  signal  success  by  the  English,  were  first  understood  and 
practised  by  this  ingenious  and  aspiring  Frenchman. 

24.  The  situation  of  India  was  such  that  scarcely  any  aggression 
could  be  without  a  pretext,  either  in  old  laws  or  in  recent  prac- 
tice. All  rights  were  in  a  state  of  utter  uncertainty  ;  and  the 
Europeans  who  took  part  in  the  disputes  of  the  natives  con- 
founded the  confusion,  by  applying  to  Asiatic  politics  the  public 
law  of  the  West,  and  analogies  drawn  from  the  feudal  system.  If 
it  was  convenient  to  treat  a  Nabob  as  an  independent  prince, 
there  was  an  excellent  plea  for  doing  so.  He  was  independent  in 
fact.  If  it  was  convenient  to  treat  him  as  a  mere  deputy  of  the 
Court  of  Delhi,  there  was  no  difficulty  ;  for  he  was  so  in  theory. 
If  it  was  convenient  to  consider  his  office  as  an  hereditary  dig- 
nity, or  as  a  dignity  held  during  life  only,  or  as  a  dignity  held 
only  during  the  good  pleasure  of  the  Mogul,  arguments  and 
precedents  might  be  found  for  every  one  of  those  views.  The 
party  who  had  the  heir  of  Baber  in  their  hands  represented  him 
as  the  undoubted,  the  legitimate,  the  absolute  sovereign,  whom 
all  subordinate  authorities  were  bound  to  obey.  The  party 
against  whom  his  name  was  used  did  not  want  plausible  pretexts 
for  maintaining  that  the  empire  was  in  fact  dissolved  ;  and  that, 
though  it  might  be  decent  to  treat  the  Mogul  with  respect,  as  a 
venerable  relic  of  an  order  of  things  which  had  passed  away,  it 
was  absurd  to  regard  him  as  the  real  master  of  Hindoostan, 


XXIL    LORD  CLIVK  367 

35.  In  the  year  1748,  died  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  new 
masters  of  India,  the  great  Nizam  al  Mulk,  Viceroy  of  the 
Deccan.  His  authority  descended  to  his  son,  Nazir  Jung.  Of 
the  provinces  subject  to  this  high  functionary,  the  Carnutic  was 
the  wealthiest  and  the  most  extensive.  It  was  governed  by  an 
ancient  Nabob,  whose  name  the  English  corrupted  into  Anaverdy 
Khan. 

36.  But  there  were  pretenders  to  the  government  both  of  the 
vice-royalty  and  of  the  subordinate  province.  Mirzapha  Jung,  a 
grandson  of  Nizam  al  Mulk,  appeared  as  the  competitor  of  Nazir 
Jung.  Chunda  Sahib,  son-in-law  of  a  former  nabob  of  the  Car- 
natic,  disputed  the  title  of  Anaverdy  Khan.  In  the  unsettled 
state  of  Indian  law  it  was  easy  for  both  Mirzapha  Jung  and 
Chunda  Sahib  to  make  out  something  like  a  claim  of  right.  In  a 
society  altogether  disorganized,  they  had  no  difficulty  in  finding 
greedy  adventurers  to  follow  their  standards.  They  united  their 
interests,  invaded  the  Carnatic,  and  applied  for  assistance  to  the 
French,  whose  fame  had  been  raised  by  their  success  against  the 
English  in  the  recent  war  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel. 

27.  Nothing  could  have  happened  more  pleasing  to  the  subtle 
and  ambitious  Dupleix.  To  make  a  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic,  to 
make  a  Viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  to  rule  under  their  names  the 
whole  of  southern  India  ;  this  was  indeed  an  attractive  prospect. 
He  allied  himself  with  the  pretenders,  and  sent  four  hundred 
French  soldiers,  and  two  thousand  sepoys,  disciplined  after  the 
European  fashion,  to  the  assistance  of  his  confederates.  A  battle 
was  fought.  The  French  distinguished  themselves  greatly. 
Anavei'dy  Khan  was  defeated  and  slain.  His  son,  Mahommed 
Ali,  who  was  afterwards  well  known  in  England  as  the  Nabob  of 
Arcot,  and  who  owes  to  the  eloquence  of  Burke  a  most  unenvi- 
able immortality,  fled  with  a  scanty  remnant  of  his  army  to 
Trichinopoly  ;  and  the  conquerors  became  at  once  masters  of 
almost  every  part  of  the  Carnatic. 

28.  This  was  but  the  beginning  of  the  greatness  of  Dupleix. 
After  some  months  of  fighting,  negotiation,  and  intrigue,  his 
ability  and  good  fortune  seemed  to  have  prevailed  everywhere. 
Nazir  Jung  perished  by  the  hands  of  his  own  followers;  Mirzapha 
Jung  was  master  of  the  Deccan;  and  the  triumph  of  French  arms 
and  French  policy  was  complete.     At  Pondicherry  all  was  exul- 


368  AVPBNBIX  C— MODELS. 

tation  and  festivity.  Salutes  were  fired  from  the  batteries,  and 
Te  Deum  sung  in  the  churches.  The  new  Nizam  came  thither  to 
visit  his  allies;  and  the  ceremony  of  his  installation  was  per- 
formed there  with  great  pomp.  Dupleix,  dressed  in  the  garb 
worn  by  Mahommedans  of  the  highest  rank,  entered  the  town  in 
the  same  palanquin  with  the  Nizam,  and,  in  the  pageant  which 
followed,  took  precedence  of  all  the  court.  He  was  declared 
Governor  of  India  from  the  river  Kristna  to  Cape  Coniorin,  a 
country  about  as  large  as  France,  with  authority  superior  even  to 
that  of  Chunda  Sahib.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of 
seven  thousand  cavalry.  It  was  announced  that  no  mint  would 
be  suffered  to  exist  in  the  Carnatic  except  that  at  Pondicherry. 
A  large  portion  of  the  treasui'es  which  former  viceroys  of  the 
Deccan  had  accumulated  found  its  way  into  the  coffers  of  the 
Fi'ench  governor.  It  was  rumored  that  he  had  received  two 
hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling  in  money,  besides  many  valu- 
able jewels.  In  fact,  there  could  scarcely  be  any  limit  to  his 
gains.  He  now  ruled  thirty  millions  of  people  with  almost  abso- 
lute power.  No  honor  or  emolument  could  be  obtained  from  the 
government  but  by  his  intervention.  No  petition,  unless  signed 
by  him,  was  perused  by  the  Nizam. 

29.  Mirzapha  Jung  survived  his  elevation  only  a  few  months. 
But  another  prince  of  the  same  house  was  raised  to  the  throne 
by  French  influence,  and  ratified  all  the  promises  of  his  prede- 
cessor. Dupleix  was  now  the  greatest  potentate  in  India.  His 
countrymen  boasted  that  his  name  was  mentioned  with  awe  even 
in  the  chambers  of  the  palace  of  Delhi.  The  native  population 
looked  with  amazement  on  the  progress  which,  in  the  short  space 
of  four  years,  an  European  adventurer  had  made  towards  domin- 
ion in  Asia.  Nor  was  the  vainglorious  Frenchman  content  with 
the  reality  of  power.  He  loved  to  display  his  greatness  with 
arrogant  ostentation  before  the  eyes  of  liis  subjects  and  of  his 
rivals.  Near  the  spot  where  his  policy  had  obtained  its  chief 
triumph,  by  the  fall  of  Nazir  Jung  and  the  elevation  of  Mirzapha, 
he  determined  to  erect  a  column,  on  the  four  sides  of  which  four 
pompous  inscriptions,  in  four  languages,  should  proclaim  his 
glory  to  all  the  nations  of  the  East.  Medals  stamped  with  em- 
blems of  bis  successes  were  buried  beneath  the  foundations  of 
this  stately  jiillar,  and  round  it  arose  a  town  bearing  the  haughty 


XXII.     LORD   CLIVE.  369 

name  of  Dupleix  Fatihabad,  which  is,  being  interpreted,  the  City 
of  the  Victory  of  Dupleix. 

30.  The  English  had  made  some  feeble  and  irresolute  attempts 
to  stop  the  rapid  and  brilliant  career  of  the  rival  Company,  and 
continued  to  recognize  Mahommed  Ali  as  Nabob  of  the  Carnatic. 
But  the  dominions  of  Mahommed  Ali  consisted  of  Trichinopoly 
alone ;  and  Trichinopoly  was  now  invested  by  Chunda  Sahib  and 
his  French  auxiliaries.  To  raise  the  siege  seemed  impossible. 
The  small  force  which  was  then  at  Madras  had  no  commander. 
Major  Lawrence  had  returned  to  England  ;  and  not  a  single  offi- 
cer of  established  character  remained  in  the  settlement.  The 
natives  had  learned  to  look  with  contempt  on  the  mighty  nation 
which  was  soon  to  conquer  and  to  rule  them.  They  had  seen  the 
French  colors  flying  on  Fort  St.  George;  they  had  seen  the  chiefs 
of  the  English  factory  led  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of 
Pondicherry ;  they  had  seen  the  arms  and  counsels  of  Dupleix 
everywhere  successful,  while  the  opposition  which  the  authorities 
of  Madras  had  made  to  his  progress  had  served  only  to  expose 
their  own  weakness  and  to  heighten  his  glory.  At  this  moment, 
the  valor  and  genius  of  an  obscure  English  youth  suddenly 
turned  the  tide  of  fortune. 

31.  Clive  was  now  twenty-five  years  old.  After  hesitating  for 
some  time  between  a  military  and  a  commercial  life,  he  had  at 
length  V)een  placed  in  a  post  which  partook  of  Vjoth  characters, 
that  of  commissary  to  the  troops,  with  the  rank  of  captain.  The 
present  emergency  called  forth  all  his  powers.  He  represented 
to  his  superiors  that  unless  some  vigorous  efforts  were  made, 
Trichinopoly  would  fall,  the  house  of  Anaverdy  Khan  would  per- 
ish, and  the  French  would  become  the  real  masters  of  the  whole 
peninsula  of  India.  It  was  absolutely  necessary  to  strike  some 
daring  blow.  If  an  attack  were  made  on  Arcot,  the  capital  of 
the  Carnatic,  and  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Nabobs,  it  was  not 
impossible  that  the  siege  of  Trichinopoly  would  be  raised.  The 
heads  of  the  English  settlement,  now  thoroughly  alarmed  by  the 
success  of  Dupleix,  and  apprehensive  that,  in  the  event  of  a  new 
war  between  France  and  Great  Britain,  Madras  would  be  in- 
stantly taken  and  destroyed,  approved  of  Clive's  plan,  and 
intrusted  the  execution  of  it  to  himself.  The  young  captain  was 
put  at  the  bead  of  two  hundred  English  soldiers,  and  three  hun- 


370  APPENDIX  C  — MODELS. 

dred  sepoys,  armed  and  disciplined  after  the  European  fashion. 
Of  the  eight  officers  who  commanded  this  little  force  under  him, 
only  two  had  ever  been  in  action,  and  four  of  the  eight  were 
factors  of  the  Company,  whom  Olive's  example  had  induced  to 
offer  their  services.  The  weather  was  stormy;  but  Olive  pushed 
on,  through  thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  to  the  gates  of  Arcot. 
The  garrison,  in  a  panic,  evacuated  the  fort,  and  the  English 
entered  it  without  a  blow. 

32.  But  Olive  well  knew  that  he  should  not  be  suffered  to  retain 
undisturbed  possession  of  his  conquest.  He  instantly  began  to 
collect  provisions,  to  throw  up  works,  and  to  make  preparations 
for  sustaining  a  siege.  The  garrison,  which  had  fled  at  his  ap- 
proach, had  now  recovered  from  its  dismay,  and,  having  been 
swollen  by  large  re-enforcements  from  the  neighborhood  to  a 
force  of  three  thousand  men,  encamped  close  to  the  town.  At 
dead  of  night,  Olive  marched  out  of  the  fort,  attacked  the  camp 
by  surprise,  slew  great  numbers,  dispersed  the  rest,  and  re- 
turned to  his  quarters  without  having  lost  a  single  man. 

33.  The  intelligence  of  these  events  was  soon  carried  to  Ohunda 
Sahib,  who,  with  his  French  allies,  was  besieging  Trichinopoly. 
He  immediately  detached  four  thousand  men  from  his  camp,  and 
sent  them  to  Arcot.  They  were  speedily  joined  by  the  remains 
of  the  force  which  Olive  had  lately  scattered.  They  were  further 
strengthened  by  two  thousand  men  from  Vellore,  and  by  a  still 
more  important  re-enforcement  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  French 
soldiers  whom  Dupleix  despatched  from  Pondicherry.  The  whole 
of  this  army,  amounting  to  about  ten  thousand  men,  was  under 
the  command  of  Rajah  Sahib,  son  of  Ohunda  Sahib. 

34.  Rajah  Sahib  proceeded  to  invest  the  fort  of  Arcot,  which 
seemed  quite  incapable  of  sustaining  a  siege.  The  walls  were 
ruinous,  the  ditches  dry,  the  ramparts  too  narrow  to  admit  the 
guns,  the  battlements  too  low  to  protect  the  soldiers.  The  little 
garrison  had  been  greatly  reduced  by  casualties.  It  now  con- 
sisted of  a  hundred  and  twenty  Europeans  and  two  hundred 
sepoys.  Only  four  officers  were  left;  the  stock  of  provisions  was 
scanty;  and  the  commander,  who  had  to  conduct  the  defence 
under  circumstances  so  discouraging,  was  a  young  man  of  five 
and  twenty,  who  had  been  bred  a  book-keeper. 

35.  During  fifty  days  the  siege  went  on.     During  fifty  days  the 


XXJI.     LORD   CLIYE.  371 

young  captain  maintained  the  defence,  with  a  firmness,  vigilance, 
and  ability,  which  would  have  done  honor  to  the  oldest  marshal 
in  Europe.  The  breach,  however,  increased  day  by  day.  The 
garrison  began  to  feel  the  pressure  of  hunger.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, any  troops  so  scantily  provided  with  oflScers  might 
have  been  expected  to  show  signs  of  insubordination;  and  the 
danger  was  peculiarly  great  in  a  force  composed  of  men  differing 
widely  from  each  other  in  extraction,  color,  language,  manners, 
and  religion.  But  the  devotion  of  the  little  band  to  its  chief  sur- 
passed anything  that  is  related  of  the  Tenth  Legion  of  Caesar,  or 
of  the  Old  Guard  of  Napoleon.  The  sepoys  came  to  Clive,  not  to 
complain  of  their  scanty  fare,  but  to  propose  that  all  the  grain 
should  be  given  to  the  Europeans,  who  required  more  nourish- 
ment than  the  natives  of  Asia.  The  thin  gruel,  they  said,  which 
was  strained  away  from  the  rice,  would  suflQce  for  themselves. 
History  contains  no  more  touching  instance  of  military  fidelity, 
or  of  the  influence  of  a  commanding  mind. 

36.  An  attempt  made  by  the  government  of  Madras  to  relieve 
the  place  had  failed.  But  there  was  hope  from  another  quarter. 
A  body  of  six  thousand  Mahrattas,  half  soldiers,  half  robbers, 
under  the  command  of  a  chief  named  Morari  Row,  had  been 
hired  to  assist  Mahommed  Ali;  but  thinking  the  French  power 
irresistible,  and  the  triumph  of  Chunda  Sahib  certain,  they  had, 
hitherto,  remained  inactive  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Carnatic. 
The  fame  of  the  defence  of  Arcot  roused  them  from  their  torpor. 
Morari  Row  declared  that  he  had  never  before  believed  that  Eng- 
lishmen could  fight,  but  that  he  would  willingly  help  them,  since 
he  saw  that  they  had  spirit  to  help  themselves.  Rajah  Sahib 
learned  that  the  Mahrattas  were  in  motion.  It  was  necessary 
for  him  to  be  expeditious.  He  first  tried  negotiation.  He 
offered  large  bribes  to  Clive,  which  were  rejected  with  scorn. 
He  vowed  that,  if  his  proposals  were  not  accepted,  he  would 
instantly  storm  the  fort,  and  put  every  man  in  it  to  the  sword. 
Clive  told  him  in  reply,  with  characteristic  haughtiness,  that  his 
father  was  an  usurper,  that  his  army  was  a  rabble,  and  that  he 
would  do  well  to  think  twice  before  he  sent  such  poltroons  into  a 
breach  defended  by  English  soldiers. 

37.  Rajah  Sahib  determined  to  storm  the  fort.  The  day  was 
well  suited  to  a  bold  military  enterprise.     It  was  the  great 


372  APPENDIX   C— MODELS. 

Mahommedan  festival  which  is  sacred  to  tlie  memory  of  Hosein, 
the  son  of  Ali.  The  history  of  Islam  contains  nothing  more 
touching  than  the  event  which  gave  rise  to  that  solemnity.  The 
mournful  legend  relates  how  the  chief  of  the  Fatimites,  when  all 
his  brave  followers  had  perished  round  him,  drank  his  latest 
draught  of  water,  and  uttered  his  latest  prayer ;  how  the  as- 
sassins carried  his  head  in  triumph  ;  how  the  tyrant  smote  the 
lifeless  lips  with  his  staff ;  and  how  a  few  old  men  recollected 
with  tears  that  they  had  seen  those  lips  pressed  to  the  lips  of  the 
Prophet  of  God.  After  the  lapse  of  near  twelve  centuries,  the 
recurrence  of  this  solemn  season  excites  the  tiercest  and  saddest 
emotions  in  the  bosoms  of  the  devout  Moslem  of  India.  They 
work  themselves  up  to  such  agonies  of  rage  and  lamentation, 
that  some,  it  is  said,  have  given  up  the  ghost  from  the  mere 
effect  of  mental  excitement.  They  believe  that  whoever,  during 
this  festival,  falls  in  arras  against  the  infidels,  atones  by  his 
death  for  all  the  sins  of  his  life,  and  passes  at  once  to  the  garden 
of  the  Houris.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Rajah  Sahib  determined 
to  assault  Arcot.  Stimulating  drugs  were  employed  to  aid  the 
effect  of  religious  zeal;  and  the  besiegers,  drunk  with  enthusi- 
asm, drunk  with  bang,  rushed  furiously  to  the  attack. 

38.  Clive  had  received  secret  intelligence  of  the  design,  had 
made  his  arrangements,  and,  exhausted  by  fatigue,  had  thrown 
himself  on  his  bed.  He  was  awakened  by  the  alarm,  and  was 
instantly  at  his  post.  The  enemy  advanced,  driving  before  them 
elephants  whose  foreheads  were  armed  with  iron  plates.  It  was 
expected  that  the  gates  would  yield  to  the  shock  of  these  living 
battering  rams.  But  the  huge  beasts  no  sooner  felt  the  English 
musket-balls,  than  they  turned  round,  and  rushed  furiously 
away,  trampling  on  the  multitude  which  had  urged  them  for- 
ward. A  raft  was  launched  on  the  water  which  filled  one  part 
of  the  ditch.  Clive,  perceiving  that  his  gunners  at  that  post  did 
not  understand  their  business,  took  the  management  of  a  piece 
of  artillery  himself,  and  cleared  the  raft  in  a  few  minutes. 
Where  the  moat  was  dry  the  assailants  mounted  with  great  bold- 
ness; but  they  were  received  with  a  tire  so  heavy  and  so  well 
directed,  that  it  soon  quelled  the  courage  even  of  fanaticism  and 
of  intoxication.  The  rear  ranks  of  the  English  kept  the  front 
ranks  supplied  with  a  constant  succession  of  loaded  muskets,  and 


XXIL    LORD  CLIVE.  373 

every  shot  told  on  the  living  mass  below.     After  three  desperate 
onsets,  the  besiegers  retired  behind  the  ditch. 

39.  The  struggle  lasted  about  an  hour.  Four  hundred  of  the 
assailants  fell.  The  garrison  lost  only  five  or  six  men.  The 
besieged  passed  an  anxious  night,  looking  for  a  renewal  of  the 
attack.  But  when  day  broke,  the  enemy  were  no  more  to  be 
seen.  They  had  retired,  leaving  to  the  English  several  guns  and 
a  large  quantity  of  ammunition. 

40.  The  news  was  received  at  Fort  St.  George  with  transports 
of  joy  and  pride.  Clive  was  justly  regarded  as  a  man  equal  to 
any  command.  Two  hundred  English  soldiers,  and  seven  hun- 
dred sepoys  were  sent  to  him,  and  with  this  force  he  instantly 
commenced  offensive  operations.  He  took  the  fort  of  Timery, 
effected  a  junction  with  a  division  of  Morari  Row's  army,  and 
hastened,  by  foi'ced  marches,  to  attack  Rajah  Sahib,  who  was  at 
the  head  of  about  five  thousand  men,  of  whom  three  hundred 
were  French.  The  action  was  sharp  ;  but  Clive  gained  a  com- 
plete victory.  The  military  chest  of  Rajah  Sahib  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors.  Six  hundred  sepoys,  who  had  served 
in  the  enemy's  army,  came  over  to  Olive's  quarters,  and  were 
taken  into  the  British  service.  Conjeveram  surrendered  without 
a  blow.  The  governor  of  Arnee  deserted  Chunda  Sahib,  and 
recognized  the  title  of  Mahommed  Ali. 

41.  Had  the  entire  direction  of  the  war  been  intrusted  to  Clive, 
it  would  probably  have  been  brought  to  a  speedy  close.  But  the 
timidity  and  incapacity  which  appeared  in  all  the  movements  of 
the  English,  except  where  he  was  personally  present,  protracted 
the  struggle.  The  Mahrattas  muttered  that  his  soldiers  were  of 
a  different  race  from  the  British  whom  they  found  elsewhere. 
The  effect  of  this  languor  was,  that  in  no  long  time  Rajah  Sahib, 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  in  which  were  four  hundred 
French  troops,  appeared  almost  under  the  guns  of  Fort  St. 
George,  and  laid  waste  the  villas  and  gardens  of  the  gentlemen 
of  the  English  settlement.  But  he  was  again  encountered  and 
defeated  by  Clive.  More  than  a  hundred  of  the  French  were 
killed  or  taken,  a  loss  more  serious  than  that  of  thousands  of 
natives.  The  victorious  army  marched  from  the  field  of  battle  to 
Fort  St.  David.  On  the  road  lay  the  City  of  the  Victory  of 
Dupleix,  and  the  stately  monument  which  was  designed  to  com- 


374  APPENDIX  a— MODELS. 

memorate  the  triumphs  of  France  in  the  East.  Clive  ordered 
both  the  city  and  the  monument  to  be  razed  to  the  ground.  He 
was  induced,  we  believe,  to  take  this  step,  not  by  personal  or 
national  malevolence,  but  by  a  just  and  profound  policy.  The 
town,  and  its  pompous  name,  the  pillar  and  its  vaunting  inscrip- 
tions, were  among  the  devices  by  which  Dupleix  had  laid  the 
public  mind  of  India  under  a  spell.  This  spell  it  was  Olive's 
business  to  break.  The  natives  had  been  taught  that  France  was 
confessedly  the  first  power  in  Europe,  and  that  the  English  did 
not  presume  to  dispute  her  supremacy.  No  measure  could  be 
more  effectual  for  the  removing  of  this  delusion,  than  the  public 
and  solemn  demolition  of  the  French  trophies. 

42.  The  government  of  Madras,  encouraged  by  these  events, 
determined  to  send  a  strong  detachment,  under  Clive,  to  re-en- 
force the  garrison  of  Trichinopoly.  But  just  at  this  conjuncture. 
Major  Lawrence  arrived  from  England,  and  assumed  the  chief . 
command.  From  the  waywardness  and  impatience  of  control 
which  had  characterized  Clive,  both  at  school  and  in  the  counting- 
house,  it  might  have  been  expected  that  he  would  not,  after  such 
achievements,  act  with  zeal  and  good  humor  in  a  subordinate 
capacity.  But  Lawrence  had  early  treated  him  with  kindness ; 
and  it  is  bare  justice  to  Clive  to  say  that,  proud  and  overbearing 
as  he  was,  kindness  was  never  thrown  away  upon  him.  He 
cheerfully  placed  himself  under  the  orders  of  his  old  friend,  and 
exerted  himself  as  strenuously  in  the  second  post  as  he  could 
have  done  in  the  first.  Lawrence  well  knew  the  value  of  such 
assistance.  Though  himself  gifted  with  no  intellectual  faculty 
higher  than  plain  good  sense,  he  fully  appreciated  the  powers  of 
his  brilliant  coadjutor.  Though  he  had  made  a  methodical  study 
of  military  tactics,  and,  like  all  men  regularly  bred  to  a  profes- 
sion, was  disposed  to  look  with  disdain  on  interlopers,  he  had  yet 
liberality  enough  to  acknowledge  that  Clive  was  an  exception  to 
common  rules.  "  Some  people,"  he  wrote,  "  are  pleased  to  term 
Captain  Clive  fortunate  and  lucky  ;  but,  in  ray  opinion,  from  the 
knowledge  I  have  of  the  gentleman,  he  deserved  and  might  expect 
from  his  conduct  everything  as  it  fell  out :  a  man  of  an  un- 
daunted resolution,  of  a  cool  temper,  and  of  a  presence  of  mind 
which  never  left  him  in  the  greatest  danger  :  born  a  soldier,  for, 
without  a   military  education  of  any  sort,  or  much  conversing 


XXII.     LORD   CLIVE.  375 

with  any  of  the  profession,  from  his  judgment  and  good  sense, — 
he  led  on  an  array  like  an  experienced  officer  and  a  brave  soldier, 
with  a  prudence  that  certainly  warranted  success." 

43.  The  French  had  no  commander  to  oppose  to  the  two  friends. 
Dupleix,  not  inferior  in  talents  for  negotiation  and  intrigue  to 
any  European  who  has  borne  a  part  in  the  revolutions  of  India, 
was  ill  qualified  to  direct  in  person  military  operations.  He  had 
not  been  bred  a  soldier,  and  had  no  inclination  to  become  one. 
His  enemies  accused  him  of  personal  cowardice  ;  and  he  defended 
himself  in  a  strain  worthy  of  Captain  Bobadil.  He  kept  away 
from  shot,  he  said,  because  silence  and  tranquillity  were  pro- 
pitious to  his  genius,  and  he  found  it  difficult  to  pursue  his  medi- 
tations amidst  the  noise  of  fire-arms.  He  was  thus  under  the 
necessity  of  intrusting  to  others  the  execution  of  his  great  war- 
like designs  ;  and  he  bitterly  complained  that  he  was  ill  served. 
He  had  indeed  been  assisted  by  one  officer  of  eminent  merit,  the 
celebrated  Bussy.  But  Bussy  had  marched  northward  with  the 
Nizam,  and  was  fully  employed  in  looking  after  his  own  inter- 
ests, and  those  of  France,  at  the  court  of  that  prince.  Among 
the  officers  who  remained  with  Dupleix,  there  was  not  a  single 
man  of  capacity  ;  and  many  of  them  were  boys,  at  whose  igno- 
rance and  folly  the  common  soldiers  laughed. 

44.  The  English  triumphed  everywhere.  The  besiegers  of 
Trichinopoly  were  themselves  besieged  and  compelled  to  capitu- 
late. Chunda  Sahib  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas,  and 
was  put  to  death,  at  the  instigation  probably  of  his  competitor, 
Mahommed  Ali.  The  spirit  of  Dupleix,  however,  was  unconquer- 
able, and  his  resources  inexhaustible.  From  his  employers  in 
Europe  he  no  longer  received  help  or  countenance.  Tliey  con- 
demned his  policy.  They  gave  him  no  pecuniary  assistance. 
They  sent  him  for  troops  only  the  sweepings  of  the  galleys.  Yet 
still  he  persisted,  intrigued,  bribed,  promised,  lavished  his  private 
fortune,  strained  his  credit,  procured  new  diplomas  from  Delhi, 
raised  up  new  enemies  to  the  government  of  Madras  on  every 
side,  and  found  tools  even  among  the  allies  of  the  English  Com- 
pany. But  all  was  in  vain.  Slowly,  but  steadily,  the  power  of 
Britain  continued  to  increase,  and  that  of  France  to  decline. — 
JIacaulay  :  Lord  Clive. 


376 


REFERENCE  TABLE. 


ABBREVIATIONS   FOR  USE  IN   CORRECTING  THEMES. 
D.  Diction  faulty.    See  dictionary. 
S.    Sentence  structure  faulty. 
H     Fault  ill  paragraphing. 
a.    Ambiguous. 

c.    CircuinIocutory,verbose;  condense. 
e.    Not  euphonious.  Unpleasant  repe- 
tition. 
/.    Figure  mixed,  or  out  of  place. 

Vertical  line  before  passage  :  Recast. 

Mark  under  or  around  a  letter  or  punctuation  mark  :    Fault  in  spelliutr  or 
punctuation.  '  *= 


Ungraminatical. 

n.  High-tiowii. 

A--.  Awkward.    Recast, 

o.  Obscure. 

r.  Reference  faulty. 

V.  Vague. 

U-.  Weak. 

X.  Error  not  specified. 


PART  I. 


CONDENSED  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
Numerals  refer  to  sections  of  this  book. 
-THE   WHOLE  COMPO 
SITION. 


1.  Composition  Defined. 

THE   SUBJECT. 

2.  Range. 

3.  Nature. 

4.  Limitation. 
h.  Kinds. 

L  Narrative. 

2.  Descriptive. 

3.  Expository. 

4.  Argumentative. 

THE   MATERIAL, 

6.  Finding  Jlaterial. 

1.  Observation. 

2.  Reading. 

7.  Accrediting. 

8.  Use. 

9.  Arrangement. 

1.  Unity. 

2.  Sequence. 

3.  Emphasis. 

10.  Outline. 

THE  COMPOSITION. 

11.  The  Title. 

1.  Clearness. 

2.  Brevity. 

3.  Appi'opriateness. 

12.  Introthiction. 

1.  Statement  of  Theme. 

2.  Writer  and  Purpose. 

3.  Length. 

4.  Errors. 

a.  Obscure  Beginnings. 

b.  References  to  Title. 

c.  Remote  Beginnings. 

5.  Various  Methods. 

a.  Indirect  Beginnings. 
6.  Direct  Begiimings. 

c.  Formal  Methods. 

d.  Informal  Methods. 

e.  General  Principles. 

13.  Body. 

1.  Unity. 

2.  Harmony  of  Tone. 

3.  Coherence. 

4.  Proportion. 

14.  Conclusion. 

1.  Varieties.  [duction. 

2.  Correspondence    with    Intio- 


3.  Abrupt  and  Suggestive  End- 
ings, [clusiims. 

4.  Examples     of     Foimal     Con- 

PART   ll.-THE   PARAGRAPH. 

NATURE. 

15.  Technical  Definition. 

16.  Logical  Definition. 

1.  Isolated,  Spurious. 

2.  Dialogues,  etc. 

17.  Kinds. 

18.  Length. 

1.  Single  Sentence. 

2.  Meager  vs.  Bulky. 

19.  Piinciples  of  Division. 

1.  Correspondence  with  Outline. 

2.  Additional  Devices. 

3.  Variations  in  Practice. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

20.  The  Topic. 

21.  Modification. 

1.  Limitation. 

2.  Extension. 

3.  Augmentation. 

22.  Elucidation. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Division. 

3.  Illustration.. 

23.  Argument. 

1.  Deduction. 

2.  Induction. 

3.  Statement  of  Reasons. 

24.  Enforcement. 

1.  Repetition. 

2.  Contrast. 

3.  Quotation. 

LAWS. 

25.  Unity. 

2C.  Coherence. 

27.  Proportion  and  Emphasis. 

PART  lll.-THE  SENTENCE  AND 
ITS  CLAUSES. 

NATURE   OF   THE   SENTENCE. 

28.  Definition. 

29.  Kinds. 

1.  Simple. 

2.  Comj)lex. 

3.  Compound. 

30.  Unity. 


REFERENCE  TABLE. 


377 


SYNTAX. 

31.  Concord. 

1.  Nuiiibfr  of  Subject  Obscureil. 

2.  Conipdiiniliiif,'  of  Subject. 

3.  Subject  a  tier  Verb. 

4.  Complex  Subject. 

5.  Subject  and  Predicate  of  Dif- 

ferent Numbers. 

6.  Collective  Nouns. 

7.  Distributives. 

8.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 
S'.  Reference  Words. 

32.  Regimen. 

33.  Tense  Relations. 

1.  Past  and  Imperfect. 

2.  Historical  Present. 

3.  Future  :  Shall  and  Will. 

4.  Tense  Attraction. 

34.  Participles  and  Participial  Clauses. 

1.  The  Attached  Participle. 

2.  The  Detached  Participle. 

3.  Very  as  a  Participial  Modifier. 

35.  Infinitives. 

1.  Omission  of  to. 

2.  Cleft  Infinitive. 

3.  Infinitive  in  -ing. 

36.  Mixed  Constructions. 

1.  Verb  Forms. 

2.  Comparisons. 

3.  Prepositions. 

37.  Coordination,  Subordination. 

1.  False    Coordination.  —  Parti- 

ciples. 

2.  "And  which." 

3.  "So,"  '•  then,"  etc. 

4.  Constructions  Contrasted. 


CLEARNESS. 


38. 

Collocation. 

1.  Loose  Arrangement. 

2.  Position  of  Relative  Clauses 

3.  Position  of  only,  etc. 

3!). 

Conjunction. 

JO. 

Restriction. 

41. 

Negation. 

41. 

Ellipsis. 

43. 

Reference. 

1.  Ambiguous. 

2.  Illogical. 

3.  Implicit. 

EFFECTIVENESS. 

44.  Conciseness. 

1.  Tautology. 

2.  Pleonasm. 

3.  Circumlocution. 

4.  Excessive  Predication. 

45.  Sentence-Length. 

46.  Proportion. 

1.  Excess  of  Clauses. 

2.  Derangement. 

3.  Parentheses. 

47.  Variety. 

48.  Emphasis. 

1.  Transposition 

2.  Climax. 

3.  Suspense. 


4!).  Balance. 

1.  Analogous  Elements. 

2.  Enumeration. 

3.  Correlation. 

4.  Contrast. 
60.  Euphony. 

PART   IV.-WORDS  AND 

PHRASES. 
RELATION    TO    THOUGHT. 
51.  Unequivocalness. 

62.  Precision. 

63.  Familiarity. 

RELATION   TO   STRUCTURE. 

54.  Logical  Conformity 

55.  Functionality. 

56.  Idiomatic  Usage. 

57.  Repetition. 

RELATION   TO   STYLE. 

58.  Tone. 

1.  Contractions,  etc. 

2.  Grandiloquence. 

3.  Colloquial  Emphasis. 
69.  Vigor. 

1.  Short  and  Long  Words. 

2.  Generic  and  Specific. 

3.  Originality. 

60.  Beauty. 

1.  Variety. 

2.  Figures. 

3.  Ornament. 

PART  V.-MECHANICAL   PRO- 
CESSES. 

61.  Chirography. 

62.  Manuscript. 

63.  Punctuation. 

1.  Period. 

2.  Comma. 

1)  Construction. 

2)  Parts  of  Speech. 

3)  Series. 

4)  Adverbs. 

5)  Parenthetic  Elements. 

6)  Clauses. 

7)  Transposition. 

8)  Before  Verb,  Object. 

9)  Before  that. 
10)  Ellipses. 

3.  Semicolon. 

4.  Colon. 

5.  Exclamation  Point. 

6.  Interrogation  Point. 

7.  Dash. 

8.  Parentheses. 

9.  Brackets. 

10.  Apostrophe. 

11.  Quotation  Marks. 

12.  Hyphen. 

64.  Abbreviations. 

65.  Capitals. 

66.  Compounds. 

67.  Spelling. 

1.  General  Rules. 

2.  Doubtful  Rules. 

3.  Double  Consonants. 

4.  List. 

6S.  Letter  Writing. 
0J».  Theses. 


NOTE  TO  REFERENCE  TABLE. 

On  the  two  pages  preceding  are  given  a  list  of  abbrevia- 
tions and  a  condensed  table  of  contents.  Both  are  for  nse 
in  correcting  themes.  By  allowing  the  book  to  lie  before 
him  opened  at  these  pages,  the  instructor  can  see  at  a 
glance  the  reference  needed.  Thus,  if  a  pupil  writes  "  He 
would  have  liked  to  have  been  present,"  the  instructor  will 
write  in  the  margin  33,  4;  if  he  persists  in  using  a  comma 
before  the  conjunction  that,  the  reference  will  be  to  63,  2, 
9);  if  his  style  is  too  florid,  the  fault  will  be  indicated  by  an 
7i,  or  by  a  reference  to  58,  '2  or  to  60,  3  or  3  as  the  case 
may  require.  As  to  the  list  of  abbreviations,  the  shorter  it 
can  be  kept,  the  better  for  both  teacher  and  student. 
Elaborate  lists  defeat  their  own  end — the  end  of  saving 
time.  The  reference  system  here  commended  will  be  found 
both  simple  and  effective.  It  may  assist  the  memory  to 
note  that  the  capital  letters,  1),  S,  and  P  (or  ^),  serve  to 
point  out  faults  in  the  three  great  divisions  of  a  composi- 
tion,— Diction  (or  Words),  Sentences,  and  Paragraphs; 
while  the  small  letters  refer  to  more  specific  minor  errors. 
No  letter,  however,  is  used  twice,  and  there  can  be  no 
confusion. 

378 


INDEX. 


Abbreviations,  229,  275;  for  use 

in  correcting  themes,  376. 
Abstract  terms,  237. 
Abstracts,  directions  for  making, 

112. 
Academic  style,  235. 
Accrediting  borrowed  matter,  20. 
Agreement,  122-12o. 
Allegory,  250. 
Alliteration,  204. 
alone,  misplacement  of,  159. 
Ambiguity,  in  arrangement,  158; 

of  words,  209. 
Analogous  elements,  198. 
and,  used  for  coherence,  108;  in 

coordination,  162. 
and  which,  147. 
Antecedent,      agreement      with, 

125. 
Antithesis,  200,  225. 
Apostrophe  (figure),  249;  (mark), 

273 
Appositive  genitive,  220. 
Argumentation  defined,  11. 
Argumentative  paragraph,  83. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  224. 
Arrangement,    of    material,    27; 

of  clauses,  156-160. 
Articulation  of  sentences,  103. 
Attraction  of  tense,  134. 
Augmentation  of  topic,  78. 
Auxiliary  without  verb,  144. 

Balance,  198-201. 
Barbarisms,  iv. 
Beauty,  243. 
Body,  52. 
Bombast,  230. 
both— and,  199. 
Brackets,  273. 
"Brother  Naylor,"  53, 


Capital  letters,  276. 

Carlyle,  quoted,  18. 

Case-government,  127. 

Chirography,  261. 

Clauses,  118;  involved  or  trail- 
ing, 189;  ill  arranged,  190. 

Clearness,  156. 

Climax,  193,  247. 

Coherence,  of  composition,  56;  of 
paragraph,  103. 

Collective  nouns,  124. 

Collocation,  156-160. 

Colloquialisms,  211,  229,  232. 

Colon,  270. 

Comma,  263-269. 

Comparison,  250. 

Comparisons,  faulty  construc- 
tion of,  144. 

Complex  sentence,  117. 

Composition,  1. 

Compound  sentence,  118. 

Compound  words,  278. 

Conciseness,  174. 

Conclusion,  61-65. 

Concord,  122. 

Concreteness,  94,  237, 

Condensation,  174. 

Condensed  Table  of  Contents, 
376.  377. 

Conjunction,  162. 

Conjunctions,  loosely  u.sed,  149 

Construction,  of   paragraph,  77; 

mixed of  sentence,  143- 

145. 

Continuity  of  structure,  105, 

Contractions,  230. 

Contrary,  presenting  the,  86. 

Contrast,  86,  200. 

Conventional  phrases,  239,  251. 

Coordination,  147. 

Coordinative  relatives,  164. 

379 


380 


INDEX. 


Correcting  tli ernes,  o77. 

Correlation,  199. 

Correlati%'e,  omission  of,  144  : 
misplaced,  199. 

Criticism  of  paragrajjh  struc- 
ture, 89-97. 

Dash,  272. 

Deduction,  83. 

Defective  Compositions,  307-333. 

Definition  of  terms,  79. 

Definitions,  construction  of,  215, 

216. 
De  Quincey,  230. 
Description  defined,  11. 
Diaeresis,  279. 
Diction,    see    Words.      Disputed 

and  Faulty  Diction,  297-306. 
Diffuseness,  176. 
Digression,  107. 
Disputed  Diction,  297-306. 
Distriljutives,  125. 
Division  of  topic,  80. 
Dumas,    "Three     Musketeers," 

47. 

Effectiveness,  174. 
Ellipsis,  168,  178. 
Elucidation  of  topic,  79. 
Emerson,  K.  W.,  his  method  of 

gathering     material,     19 ;     on 

compression,   179;    on  v<jcabu- 

lary,  246. 
Emphasis,  in  composition,  30;  in 

paragraph,    112;    in    sentence, 

192. 
Enforcement  of  topic,  86. 
'■  Engineering  Etliics,"  76. 
Enumeration,  199. 
Equivocalness,  209. 
Eui)hony,  203. 
Exclamation,      colloquial,     232  ; 

figure,  248. 
Exclamation-jioint,  271. 
Exposition  defined,  11,  12. 
Extension  of  topic,  78. 

Figures     of      speech,     245-253 ; 

hackneyed,  251;  mixed,  252. 
First  per.son,  48. 
Force,  see  Effectiveness. 
Foreign  words,  214. 


Fkederic,  Harold,  14. 
Functionality,  218. 
Future  tense,  132. 

Generic  terms,  237. 
Government  of  ca.se,  127. 

Hackneyed  plirases,  239. 
had  rather,  219. 
Harmony  of  tone,  54,  251. 
Hawthorne's    "Note    Books," 

15. 
Historical  present,  131. 
Hyperbole,  248. 
Hyphen,  275,  278. 

/omitted,  169. 

Idiom,  219;  confused,  220. 

if  not,  167. 

illustration  of  topic,  81. 

Imperfect  ten.se,  130. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  125. 

Induction,  84. 

Infinitive,  subject  of,  128;  tenses 

of,  135;  without  to,  140;  cleft, 

141 ;  in  -ing,  141. 
Interrogation,  248. 
Interrogation-point,  271, 
Introduction,  41-50. 
Invention,  1. 

Inversion,  103,  105,  193,  247. 
Irony,  248 
Italics,  192,  274. 
Iteration,  87. 

Mnd  of  a,  220. 

Kii'i^iNG,  Kudyard,  236,  239. 
Knight,  "  History  of  England," 
58. 

Letter-writing,  287. 
Limitation  of  topic,  77. 
Logical  conformity,  215. 
Loose  arrangement,  157. 

Macaulay,  v;  his  method  of 
gathering  material,  18;  con- 
creteness  in,  94,  238;  his  "  His- 
tory of  England,"  15,  18,  24, 
58. 

Manuscript,  262. 


INDEX. 


381 


Material,  sources  of,  13;  accredit- 
ing, 20. 
Maupassant,  Guy  de,  14. 
Mechanical  processes,  261. 
Melody,  204. 
Metaphor,  249.  250. 
Metonymy,  249. 
Metrical  effects,  205. 
Mixed  constructions,  143. 
Model  Compositions,  334-375. 
Modification  of  topic,  77. 

Narration  defined,  10. 
Negation,  167. 
neither — nor,  167. 
Neoterisms,  214. 
Novelty,  240. 

Observation,  14-lG. 
Obsolete  words,  iv,  214. 
o/ after  verbal  noun,  142. 
oiilu,  misplacement  of,  lo9. 
or,  'l67. 

Oratorical  style,  225,  235. 
Organic  words,  218;  see  also  95. 
Organization,  27. 
Originality,  21,  239. 
Ornament,  245;  false,  253;  exces- 
sive, 254. 
Outline,  30-35. 

Paragraph,  defined,  66;  isolated, 
67;  meagre,  scrappy,  67,  71;  in 
dialogue,  69;  kinds  and  lengtli, 
69  ;  of  one  sentence,  70,  92  ; 
princijjles  of  division,  72;  how 
much  to  include  in,  74  ;  nar- 
rative, 74  ;  construction,  77  ; 
topic,  77  ;  loose  type  of,  88  ; 
laws  of,  99  ;  unity,  99;  cohe- 
rence, 103;  proportion  and  em- 
phasis, 112. 

Parentheses,  190;  (marks)  273. 

Participial  clauses,  136. 

Participle,  tenses  of,  135 ;  at- 
tached, 137;  detached,  137. 

Passive  voice,  subject  in,  128. 

Past  tense,  180. 

Pathetic-fallacy,  255. 

Period,  263. 

Periodic  arrangement,  195. 

Perorations,  61. 


Personification,  249,  255. 

Pitch,  54. 

Pleonasm,  175. 

Possessive  with  verbal  noun,  142. 

Precision,  210,  224.  235. 

Predication  excessive,  176-178. 

Presentive  words,  223,  224,  244. 

Prolixity,  176. 

Proportion,    of  composition,  57  ; 

of  paragra))h,  112. 
Provincialisms,  iv,  214. 
Punctuation,  263. 

Quotation,  86. 
Quotation-marks,  274. 

Redundance,  87,  176. 

Reference  ambiguous  or  inexact, 

170-172. 
Reference-words,  in  paragraphs, 

103,  104;  agreement  of,  125. 
Regimen,  127. 
Relation-vvords,      56,     103,     104; 

omission  of,  106,  163,  168;  rep- 
etition of,  223. 
Relative  clause,  position  of,  158  ; 

restrictive     and     explanatory, 

163. 
reliable,  219. 
Re])etition,  of  topic,  86;  useless, 

87  ;    of   construction.    201  ;    of 

words,  223-226,  244. 
Restriction,  163. 
Rlietoric,  1. 

Rhetorical  question,  248. 
Rhythm,  205. 
Rime,  204. 
RusKiN,  250,  251,  255. 

Saxon  words,  233-6. 

"Scientific  Temperance,"  110. 

Selection,  22. 

Semicolon,  269. 

Sentence,  defined,  114  ;  incom- 
plete, 115  ;  kinds,  117  ;  unity, 
118;  length,  184-188;  division, 
186;  proportion,  189. 

Sequence,  28. 

sJiall  and  mil,  132. 

Short  sentences,  186-7. 

Simile,  250. 

Simple  sentence,  117. 


382 


INDEX. 


Simplicity,  234. 

Sincerity,  3,  255. 

Slang,  234.     See  Vulgarisms. 

so  as  loose  connective,  149,  150. 

so  without  complement,  169. 

sort  of  a,  220. 

Specific  terms,  237. 

Specificness,  94. 

Spelling.  283-287. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  234,  237. 

Split  infinitive,  141. 

Statement  of  reasons,  85. 

Style,  3,  227-260  ;  not  to  be 
taught,  12  ;  elasticity.  105 ; 
smoothness,  108  ;  flexibility, 
192  ;  oratorical,  225  ;  235  ;  ele- 
vated, 228 ;  inflated,  228-230  ; 
figurative,  247,  253. 

Subjects  for  themes,  3-13  ;  list 
of,  4,  5. 

Subordination,  147,  150,  190. 

Summarizing,  61,  64. 

Suspense,  194. 

Syllabication,  275. 

Syllogism,  84. 

Symbolic  words,  223,  244. 

Synonyms,  226,  244. 

Syntax,  122. 

Tautology,  175. 
Technical  terms,  214,  238. 
Tense-relations,  129. 
that  without  complement,  169. 
the  restrictive,  164;  without  com- 
plement, 169. 


then  as  loose  connective,  149, 150. 

Thesis-writing,  288. 

Title,  38-40;  taken  for  granted 

43. 
Tone,  227. 

too  with  participle,  138. 
Topic,  of  paragraph,  77. 
Topics  for  development,  97. 
Transitional  sentence,  75* 

paragraph,  75. 
Transposition,  193. 
Tropes,  238,  247,  250. 
Truth,  255. 

Unity,  of  composition,  27,  52  ;  of 
paragraph,  99;  of  sentence,  118. 

Variety,  192,  201,  244. 
Verb,  suppression  of,  176. 
Verbal  noun,  141. 
Verbiage,  verbosity,  176. 
very  with  participle,  138. 
Vigor,  233. 
Vision,  249. 
Vocabulary,  246. 
Vulgarisms,  227,  229,  234. 

who,  irhich,  that,  163-166. 

Words,  choi(  e  of,  209  ;  relative 
meaning  of,  211;  vague  use  of, 
211;  colloquial  abuse  of,  211, 
228,  232;  familiarity,  214;  short 
and  long,  233  ;  sj)ecific,  con- 
crete, 237;  technical,  214,  238; 
unique,  240. 


PANCOAST'S  INTRODUCTION  TO  ENGLISH 
LITERATURE 

By  Henry  S.  Pancoast.     556  pp.     i2mo     $1.25  net. 

"  It  asumes  a  study  of  and  not  about  English  literature-, 
it  assumes  that  one  author  differeth  from  another  in  glory 
and  influence,  and  that  in  an  introductory  course  only 
those  of  predominant  influence  can  be  studied." — Prof. 
E.  E.  Wentworth,  Vassar  College. 

"  It  treats  of  movements — is  not  merely  a  catalogue  of 
names  and  a  record  of  critical  ratings.  Not  even  the 
dullest  pupil  can  study  it  without  feeling  the  historical 
and  logical  continuity  of  English  literature." — Nation. 

It  describes  the  political  and  social  conditions  of  the 
successive  periods  ;  notes  foreign  as  well  as  domestic  in- 
fluences ;  emphasizes  the  relations  of  literature  to  history,. 

"  Its  criticism  is  of  a  kind  to  stimulate  investigation 
rather  than  to  supplant  it." — A.  J.  George,  Newton 
{Mass.)  High  School. 

The  nineteenth  centu^-y,  for  the  first  time  in  such  a 
book,  receives  its  fair  share  of  attention. 

In  style  it  is  "interesting,"  says  Prof.  Winchester  of 
Wesleyan  University  {Conn.),  "  readable  and  stimulating," 
says  Prof.  Hart  of  Cornell,  "  interesting  and  sensible," 
says  Prof  Sampso7i  of  Indiana  University,  "  attractive," 
says  Prof.  Gilmore  of  Rochester  University,  "  well  writ- 
ten," says  Prof.  Czar^iomska  of  Smith  College. 

It  is  fully  equipped  with  teaching  apparatus.  The 
"  Study  Lists  "  give  references  for  collateral  reading,  and, 
in  the  case  of  the  most  suitable  works,  hints  and  sugges- 
tive questions.  Comparative  chronological  tables,  a 
literary  map  of  England,  and  a  plan  of  Shakespeare's 
London  are  included. 

HFNRY    HOI  T    ^    TO     29  w.  23d  st.,  new  york 

ili^lMVI       nwui       ex      \^\J  ■     378  Wabash  Ave.,  CKTCAGO 
II,  1900 


An  Important  Work  by  a  Great  Philologist 

SWEET'S  PRACTICAL  STUDY  OF   LANGUAGES 

By  Dr.  Henry  Sweet  of  Oxford,  England,     xiv  + 
280  pp.      i2mo.     $1.50,  nfL 

The  body  of  this  book  is  given  to  the  discus- 
sion (reinforced  by  telling  illustrations)  of  prac- 
tical problems  which  daily  confront  the  teacher 
of  languages — the  choice  and  proper  use  of 
grammar  and  dictionary,  the  selection  of  reading 
matter,  the  use  of  translation,  composition,  con- 
versation, etc.  An  exposition  of  the  phonetic 
basis  of  language-study  occupies  the  first  few 
chapters. 

T/ie  Nation  :  "  Few  schoolmasters  are  so  perfect  in 
their  art  as  to  find  no  profit  in  the  perusal  of  this  rich 
offering  of  recorded  experience,  original  suggestion, 
and  independent  criticism.  .  .  ,  The  teacher  will  dis- 
cover an  abundance  of  practical  ideas  and  precepts 
that  cannot  fail  to  stimulate  reflection." 

J.  W.  Bright,  Professor  in  Johns  Hopkins  University: 
"It  is  admirably  done,  and  will  be  found  instructive 
both  to  the  scholar  and  to  the  general  reader,  and 
uniformly  suggestive  throughout  a  surprisingly  wide 
range  of  topics." 

The  Outlook:  "Represents  the  advanced  line  of  the 
demand  for  reform  of  antiquated  or  unsound  methods 
of  language-study.  The  author's  comprehensive  grasp 
both  of  general  principles  and  minute  details  covers 
the  field  with  a  thoroughness  worthy  of  all  praise." 

Journal  of  Pedagogy  :  "  For  the  teacher  who  is  eager 
to  make  the  learning  of  foreign  languages — ancient 
and  modern — yield  better  educational  results  than  is 
often  the  case,  there  is  no  more  suggestive  and  stimu- 
lating volume  in  English." 

Chicago  Evening  Post :  "  Certainly  the  best  work  the 
presses  have  issued  bearing  upon  this  particular 
study." 

HENRY  HOLT   &   CO.  ^^I^^To^iT^ 


"Will  Interest  the  old  hardly  less  than  the  yburtg" 

—  Chicago  Evening  Post 

LUCAS'  A   BOOK  OF  VERSES  FOR  CHILDREN 

Over  200  poems,  representing'  some  80  authors.  Compiled  by 
Edwakd  Verrall  Lucas.  With  title-page  and  cover-lining  pic- 
tures in  color  by  F.  D.  Bedforu,  two  other  illustrations,  and  white 
cloth  cover  in  three  colors  and  gilt.   Revised  edition.  i2mo.    $2.00. 

Prof.  Edward  Everett  Hale^Jr.:  "  David  Copperfield  remembered 
learning  to  walk,  and  Pierre  Loti  remembers  the  first  time  he  jumped, 
i  think.  My  earliest  recollections  are  of  being  sung  to  sleep  by  my 
father,  who  used  to  sing  for  that  purpose  'The  British  Grenadiers' 
and  other  old-time  songs.  At  about  the  same  period  it  must  have 
been  that  my  mother  introduced  me  to  'Meddlesome  Mattie'  and 
'  George  and  the  Chimney-sweep.'  It  was,  therefore,  with  a  rush  of 
recollection  that  on  opening  'A  Book  of  Verses  for  Children'  com- 
piled by  Edward  Verrall  Lucas  I  discovered  not  only  these  three 
classics  but  many  another  lovely  thing  by  Ann  and  Jane  Taylor,  Eliza- 
beth Turner,  and  others,  as  well  as  more  modern  poems  by  Stevenson 
and  Lewis  Carroll.  'Can  it  be,'  thought  I, 'that  children  nowadays 
will  stand  Ann  and  Jane  Taylor?'  An  opportunity  of  experiment 
came  very  soon.  1  happened  to  have  the  book  under  my  arm  the  next 
day  as  I  stopped  to  see  some  friends.  They  were  out,  so  I  asked  for 
the  children  and  had  afternoon  tea  with  real  tea-things  in  company 
with  a  large  and  very  beautiful  doll,  and  afterward  skated  about  the 
hall  on  what  had  originally  been  toy  freight-cars.  At  last  I  asked  if 
poems  would  be  acceptable.  The  proposal  was  received  with  favor, 
and  I  was  soon  seated  on  a  large  trunk  with  Miss  Geraldine  on  one  side 
and  Mr.  Bartlett  on  the  other.  I  began  with  a  safe  one,  '  The  Walrus 
and  the  Carpenter,'  but  went  on  with  the  Taylorian  '  Birds,  Beasts,  and 
Fishes.'  This  took  very  well.  I  tried  another  modern  (not  to  push  a 
good  thing  into  the  ground),  and  then  went  on  with  '  Tommy  and  his 
Sister  Jane.'  This  also  succeeded,  so  1  continued  with  others  and 
others.  We  were  finally  interrupted  in  our  delightful  occupation,  but 
I  regarded  the  experiment  as  successful.  ...  I  know  of  nothing 
better  10  say  of  this  book  than  the  strictly  accurate  and  unvarnished 
account  I  have  just  given.  For  my  own  part  I  thought  it  one  of  the 
most  delightful  books  I  had  seen  for  a  long  time. 

Critic  :  "  We  know  of  no  other  anthology  for  children  so  complete 
and  well  arranged." 

New  York  Tribune:  "  The  book  remains  a  good  one;  it  contains 
so  much  that  is  charming,  so  much  that  is  admirably  in  tune  with  the 
spirit  of  childhood.  Moreover,  the  few  colored  decorations  with 
which  it  is  supplied  are  extremely  artistic,  and  the  cover  is  exception- 
ally attractive." 

Churchman  :  "  Beautiful  in  its  gay  cover,  laid  paper,  and  decorated 
title-page.  Mr.  Edward  Verrall  Lucas  has  made  the  selections  with 
nice  discrimination  and  an  intimate  knowledge  of  children's  needs 
and  capacities.  Many  of  the  selections  are  classic,  all  are  refined  and 
excellent.     The  book  is  valuable  as  a  household  treasvTe." 

Bookman  :  "  A  very  satisfactory  book  for  its  purpose,  and  has  in  it 
much  that  is  not  only  well  adapted  to  please  and  interest  a  rational 
child,  but  that  is  good,  sound  literature  also." 

Poet  Lore  :  "  A  child  could  scarcely  get  a  choicer  range  of  verse  to 
roll  over  in  his  mind,  or  be  coaxed  to  it  by  a  prettier  volume.  ...  A 
book  to  take  note  of  against  Christmas  and  all  the  birthday  gift  times 
of  the  whole  year  round." 

HENRY   HOLT  &  CO.     ^^  ^^f^%^.^^^''^ 


RINGWALT'S  AMERICAN  ORATORY 

Selections,  with   introduction  and  notes,  by  Ralph  C.  Ringwalt,  formerly 
Instructor  in  Columbia  University.     334  pp.     i2mo.     $1.00,  «^^ 

Contains  Schurz's  General  Amnesly.  Jeremiah  S.  Black's  Trial  by  Jury, 
Phillips's  Daniel  O^Connell,  Depew's  Inauguration  0/  Washington,  Curtis's 
'I'he  Leadership  0/  Educated  Men,  Henry  W.  Grady's  The  New  South,  and 
Beecher's  The  Sepulchre  in  the  Garden. 

Prof.  F.  N.  Scott,  University  of  Michigan  :  "  An  extremely  sensible 
book." 

Prof.  D.  L.  Maulsby,  Tufts  College  :  "  The  opening-  essay  is  the  best 
on  its  subject  that  I  have  seen  of  recent  years.  It  shows  grasp  on  both  the 
early  and  later  literature  of  the  subject,  and  is  thoroughly  alive  to  modern 
conditions." 

Prof.  A.  G.  Newcomer,  Lelnnd  Stanford  University  :  "  The  essay 
on  the  theory  of  oratory  is  one  of  the  most  sensible  and  at  the  same  time  stim- 
ulating essays  of  the  kind  I  have  ever  seen.'' 

Prof.  Ralph  W.  Thomas,  Colgate  University:  "It  is  a  work  that 
the  individual  student  should  have  constantly  at  hand." 


ALDEN'S  ART  OF  DEBATE 

By  Dr.  R.  M.  Alden,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  xv  +  279  pp.  i6mo. 
$1.00,  net. 

Prof.  Wm.  C.  Thayer,  Lehigh  University  :  "  An  exceflent  book,  well 
put  together,  fresh  and  up-to-date.     I  shall  use  it,  if  the  opportunity  occurs." 

WAGNER'S  MODERN  POLITICAL  ORATIONS  (BRITish) 

Kdited  by  Leopold  Wagner,     xv  +  344  pp.     i2mo.     $1.00,  net. 

A  collection  of  some  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  the  political  oratory  of 
the  present  reign.  Includes  Brougham  on  Negro  Emancipation ;  Fox  and 
Cobden  on  the  Corn  Laws  ;  Bright  on  the  Suspension  of  Habeas  Corpus  Act ; 
Rutt  and  JVIorley  on  Home  Rule  ;  Gladstone  on  the  Beaconsfield  Ministry  ; 
Parnell  on  the  Coercion  Bill  ;  and  others  by  Beaconsfield,  Russell,  Randolph 
Churchill,  Chamberlain,  Macaulay,  Bulwer-Lytton,  McCarthy,  etc.,  etc. 

POLITICAL  PAMPHLETS 

By  Burke,  Steele,  Saxby,  Halifax,  Arbuthnot,  Swift,  Bolingbroke,  and 
"Junius."  Edited  by  A.  F.  Pollard.  Bound  in  one  volume.  Patnfh- 
let  Library,     izmo.     Cloth,  $1.75,  net,  special. 

The  Nation:  "The  selections  are  very  well  chosen.  .  .  .  Deserves  well  of 
book-buyers  in  point  of  matter  and  form." 

HENRY    HOLT    &   CO.      ^^  ^^^1.^^%^''^^' 

IX,   I9CX) 


*'  I  do  710 1  know  where  else,  within  the  limits,  to  find  so  delightful 
a  selection  of  noble  poems."— Prof.  Thomas  R.  Price  of  Columbia. 

PANCOAST'S  STANDARD  ENGLISH  POEMS 

From  Spenser  to  Tennyson.  Selected  and  edited  by  HENRY 
S.  Pancoast,  author  of  An  Introduction  to  English  Litera- 
ture, etc.    749  pp.    i6mo.    $1.50,  7iet. 

Some  250  complete  poems,  besides  selections  from  such  long 
poems  as  "The  Faerie  Queene,"  "  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrim- 
age," etc. 

There  are  iq  pages  of  Ballads,  33  of  Spenser,  22  of  Elizabethan 
Songs  and  Lyrics,  16  of  Elizabethan  Sonnets,  51  of  Seven- 
teenth Century  Songs,  51  of  verse  from  Dryden  to  Thomson, 
277  of  verse  from  Thomson  to  Tennyson,  and  100  of  Victorian 
verse,  164  of  Notes  (chiefly  biographical  and  appreciative), 
4    and  an  index  of  titles. 

New  York  Tribune:  "We  believe  it  will  be  received  cordially 
by  all  lovers  of  poetry,  whether  elementary  students  or  not.  Basing 
his  selections  on  the  individual  excellence  and  historic  importance 
of  the  poems,  the  editor  has  not  allowed  his  fidelity  to  the  latter  test 
to  overrule  his  taste,  and  there  is  very  little  matter  in  the  book 
•which  is  historically  significant  alone.  First  and  last,  this  is  an 
anthology  of  the  best  poetry." 

Prof.  Henry  A.  Beers  of  Yale,  author  of  "English  Romanticism  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,"  etc.:  "  The  collection  seems  to  me  in  gen- 
eral made  with  excellent  judgment,  and  the  notes  are  sensible,  help- 
ful, and  not  too  weitldufig." 

Prof.  Albert  S.  Cook  of  Yale:  "A  thoroughly  good  selection,  and 
the  notes  are  judicious,  so  far  as  I  have  examined." 

Prof.  William  Hand  Browne  of  Johns  Hopkins:  "The  scope  is 
amply  wide,  and  the  selections  as  judicious  as  was  possible  under  the 
limitations.  The  notes,  judging  from  a  hasty  glance,  seem  full  and 
clear." 

Prof.  Charles  W.  Kent  of  the  University  of  Virginia  :  "  Contains 
nearly  all  the  poems  I  would  wish  in  such  a  volume  and  very  few 
that  I  would  readily  dispense  with." 

Prof.  James  M.  Dixon  of  Washington  University:  "It  is  just 
such  a  handy  volume  as  can  be  made,  by  a  sympathetic  teacher,  a 
companion  to  the  scholar  for  life." 

HFNRY     HOI  T     ^     Cd  29W.  23d  St,  New  York 

I  11^  IN  IV  I      nWLl      ex    \J<J.,     378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago 

i  sgoo 


LUCAS'  THE  OPEN   ROAD 

A  little  book  for  wayfarers,  bicvcle-wise  and  otherwise.  Compiled  by  E.  V. 
Lucas.  IVith  illustrated  cover-linings.  Green  and  gold  flexible  covers, 
izmo.     $1.50,  retail. 

Some  12=  poems  (mostly  complete)  and  25  prose  passages,  representing:  over 
60  authors,  including  i- itzfjerald,  Shelley,  Shakespeare,  Kenneth  Grahame, 
Stevenson,'  Whitman,  Bliss  Carman,  Browning,  William  Watson,  Alice 
Mcynel,  Keats,  Wordsworih,  Matthew  Arnold,  Tennyson,  William  Morris, 
Maurice  Hewlett,  Isaak  Walton,  William  Barnes,  Herrick,  Gervase  Markham, 
Dobson,  Lamb,  Milton,  Whittier,  etc. 

Critic  :  "  The  selections  tell  of  farewells  to  winter  and  the  town,  of  spring 
and  the  beauty  of  the  earth,  of  lovers,  of  sun  and  cloud  and  the  windy  hills, 
of  birds,  blossoms,  and  trees— in  fact  of  everything  that  makes  work  well-nigh 
impossible  when  ihe  world  of  nature  begins  to  wake  from  its  long  sleep." 

Dial:  "A  very  charming  book  from  cover  to  cover.  .  .  .  some  things  are 
lacking,  but  all  that  there  is  is  good." 

New  \ork  Tribune:  "  It  has  been  made  with  good  taste,  and  is  altogether 
a  capital  publication." 

London  Times:  "  The  only  thing  a  poetry-loving  cyclist  could  allege  against 
the  book  is  that  its  fascinations  would  make  him  rest  too  long." 

LUCAS'   A  BOOK  OF  VERSES    FOR   CHILDREN 

Over  200  poems,  representing  some  80  authors.  With  title-page  and  cover- 
lining  pictures  in  color,  and  cover  in  colors  and  gilt. 

Revised  Edition.     i2mo.     $2.00,  retail. 

Critic  :  "We  know  of  no  other  anthology  for  children  so  complete  and  well 
arranged." 

Poet  Lore  :  "  A  child  could  scarcely  get  a  choicer  range  of  verse  to  roll  over 
in  his  mind,  or  be  coaxed  to  it  by  a  prettier  volume.  ...  A  book  to  take  note 
of  against  Christmas  and  all  the  birthday  gift  times  of  the  whole  year  round." 

BEERS'    ENGLISH    ROMANTICISM -xvm.  cewtury 

Gilt  top.     455  pp.     i2mo.     $2.00,  retail. 

New  York  Commercial  Advertiser :  "The  individuality  of  his  style,  its 
humor,  its  color,  its  delicacy.  .  .  .  will  do  quite  as  much  to  continue  its 
author's  reputation  as  his  scholarship.  .  .  .  The  work  of  a  man  who  has 
studied  hard,  but  who  has  also  lived." 

Outlook:  "One  of  the  most  important  contributions  yet  made  to  literary 
history  by  an  American  scholar." 

New  York  Tribune  :  "  No  less  instructive  than  readable." 

Nation  :  "  Always  interesting.  .  .  .  On  the  whole  may  be  commended  as  an 
excellent  popular  treatment  of  the  special  subject  of  the  literary  revival  of 
medievalism  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  England." 

Literature  :  "  His  analyses  are  clear  and  profound.  .  .  .  A  notable  example 
of  the  best  type  of  unpedantic  literary  scholarship." 

HANCOCK'S  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 
AND  THE  ENGLISH  POETS 

With  an  introduction,  on  Historical  Criticism  as  an  aid  to  appreciation  by 
Professor  Lewis  E.  Gates  of   Harvard,     xvi  +  197  pp.     ismo.     $1.25,  >WazV. 

Review  of  Reviews :  "A  very  interesting  study.  ...  He  takes  up  the 
thread  of  English  romanticism  where  Professor  Beers  drops  it." 

Outlook:  ''\\.  has  a  scholar's  orderliness,  clearness  of  method,  and  contin- 
uity. .  .  Students  .  .  .  will  be  quick  to  recognize  the  conscientious  work- 
manship of  his  volume,  and  its  insight  into  the  spiritual  development  of  a 
group  of  the  foremost  English  poets  of  the  century." 

HENRY   HOLT  &  CO.,   New  York 


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MAR  16196; 
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